Typed by Flux/Crystal F-15 II Strike Eagle. Full Documents. INTRODUCTION The F-15E Strike Eagle Designer/Manufacturer: McDonnell Douglas, USA. Role: Strike Fighter. Crew: Two. Mission Weight at Takeoff: 35 tons. Engines: Two General Electric F110 Engines. Range: 1200 kms. Ceiling: 65,000' Maximum Speed at 0': 810 kts. Maximum Speed at 36,000': 1260 kts or more. Manoeuvrability: Very Good. The F-15E Strike Eagle is the latest in a long line of F-15 Eagles, whose development began in the mid 1960's. Originally conceived as an ultra- powerful, ultra-fast air-superiority fighter, the design has developed into an air-superiority fighter with ground-attack capabilities. The F-15 Strike Eagle is one of the fastest, most manoeuvrable, and most powerful military aircraft in the world. It has the capability to carry the latest air-to-air and air-to-ground armament in addition to its 20mm cannon. The latest version of the Strike Eagle is equipped with a sophisticated zoom FLIR/TV/laser target tracking system that allows the pilot to see close up views (either TV or thermal) of the target at all times. QUICK START There are several ways to get into playing F-15 Strike Eagle II. The most obvious and perhaps the most fun way is the try-and-see approach. But for those who prefer a little guidance we have provided a short tutorial to help get you started. Try-And-See Method We suggest that you try this method. Just dive in and try things out, referring to this manual and the Technical Supplement as necessary. We strongly suggest that you * use the Keyboard Reference Card, and * glance over Aircraft Controls to familiarize yourself with the HUD and cockpit. Tutorial Method You can use the "Abbreviated Tutorial" method described below for your first flight, or you can work through the more detailed tutorial further down. If you like to be guided through a situation, we suggest the full tutorial. Note that the tutorial urges that you at least skim through Aircraft Controls. Study Method You can study the actual controls and operating instructions for the craft, then attempt to fly it. This is what real pilots do. In this case, read all of Aircraft Control before flying and refer to the section as necessary. You can use the tutorial on your first flight or skip it, as you prefer. However, we suggest a practice mission as your first flight. Set-Up And Options 1) Install and Load the Simulation: see "Installation and Loading Instructions" in the Technical Section for details and specific commands. 2) Log onto the Pilot Roster: Following the on-screen instructions, erase one of the pilot names and type your name. 3) Difficulty Level: As a new pilot, you should try the "Rookie" difficulty level first. 4) Theatre: Then accept the Libyan Theatre. 5) Today's Mission: Your commanding officer informs you of your mission for today. He always gives you a two-part job to complete, a primary and a secondary target. Stop! Now, before you push the selector to continue: A Quick Checkout Before starting the game, examine the Keyboard Reference Card. This is an invaluable aid in flying your fighter. You will notice that the command keys you'll need most often are nmemonic - that is, they will be easy to remember, once you are familiar with them. The card contains a list of these keys and their functions, and shows you the other command keys in the game. Find the Pause key. This is a very useful key while learning. Skim through Aircraft Control of this manual for an overview of the cockpit and HUD (head-up-display). You'll need some familiarity with these before you fly. You are also invited to look at Views and Simulation Controls, especially the Out of Plane Views. Experiment with these on your first few flights. You'll find the views quite interesting and useful. Start The Game Now, while the mission screen is still before you, tap the selector button and you'll find yourself already airborne. (If you didn't select "Rookie" from the Difficulty screen, see How To Fly, for how to take off). Fly To Your Target Turn on the autopilot (tap the Pilot, Automatic Key) to get on course to your target. Every time you touch the control stick, the autopilot automatically turns off. Therefore, you can experiment a bit with flight on the way to the target, then turn the autopilot on once more to get back on course. Note that there is an arrow on the horizontal bar at the top of the HUD that indicates the bearing of your target; make sure this arrow remains centred on the horizontal line as you fly towards your targets. Alternatively, the autopilot will always get you back on course. During flight to the target, you will undoubtedly encounter enemy aircraft that are trying to stop you from completing your task. You'll have to shoot them down or, at least, avoid being shot down. Read Weapons and Defences for more information. Attack The Target Look at the map on the left side of your cockpit. You will see two cross- shaped markers; these indicate the locations of your two targets in Libya. When your fighter gets close to one of these, arm a Maverick missile (tap the Ground Attack Missile Key). If you are close enough to the target, it will appear on the right cockpit CRT, and a box will appear in your HUD. This box is a tracking box, and you can see what is being tracked in your right-hand cockpit CRT. You can cycle through all available ground targets by tapping the Target Search Key repeatedly. When you find the primary or secondary target stop searching and get ready to fire. As you get closer, the tracking box in the HUD changes to an oval, and the CRT screen shows the words "Missile Lock". Your Maverick missile is now locked on and ready to fire. To fire tap the Fire Missile Key. The missile will find its own path to the target. If you want insurance, wait a second or two, then tap the Fire Missile Key again to fore a second missile at the same target. You can either continue the mission according to the tutorial instructions, or you can return home immediately. Finishing The Mission To return home immediately, tap the Waypoint Select Key to display the waypoints in the centre of your HUD. Repeated tappings of the Waypoint Select Key will cycle through the waypoints for the primary, secondary, and friendly airbase. When the "Waypoint: Friendly Airbase" appears there, turn on your autopilot (tap the Pilot, Automatic Key) to get on course for home. Landing As you approach the friendly airbase, tap the Ground Attack Missile Key to switch the HUD to AIR-GROUND mode. When you are near the landing strip, it will appear in your right-side cockpit CRT. When you are very close to the airbase, your fighter will be set down safely onto the runway. This happens automatically. You have completed your first mission. CHAPTER 1. TUTORIAL =================== YOUR FIRST MISSION This tutorial is designed to help you through your first mission. Though recommended, flying this tutorial is not required; it is provided purely as a convenience. For a faster entry into your first game, turn to Abbreviated Tutorial. If you prefer to study the aircraft before you fly, go directly to Chapter 2. Preflight Briefing Options Log Onto The Pilot Roster Follow the on-screen instructions to entre your name into the roster. Use the controller to select a name to erase, press the proper key to erase it, then type your name. Finish entering your name by pressing the RETURN key. (For more information about the roster, see The Pilot Roster). Choose Your First Mission On your first mission, be sure to choose the following options: * Rookie difficulty level, then press the selector; * Libya Theatre, then press the selector. Next your commanding officer appears and tells you what today's mission is. After reading this screen, press the selector. Helpful Hints Training You will find yourself airborne when the mission starts (you do not have to take off in Rookie difficulty level). The first thing you should do is tap the Training Key. In training missions, enemy weapons do not damage. You can safely ignore enemy aircraft and missiles. Furthermore, you have an automatic barometric altimeter that adjusts your altitude to keep you above 300'. However, it only makes mild corrections, and is useless if you make wild manoeuvres. Pause To get the most from this tutorial, pause the simulation (tap the Pause Key) and read the next few paragraphs, then "unpause" and resume action for a short period. Whenever you're confused, just pause. Note that tapping any key (except pause) will "unpause" and resume the action. Re-supply In training missions (only) you can get an infinite supply of fuel and ammunition. Each time you tap the Re-supply Key, your fuel tank is filled and your ammunition is increased to the maximum possible level. This option is especially useful in target practice. A Light Touch Using a light touch on the Control Stick. The most pilot error is a "ham- fist" on the stick, throwing the plane around the sky in uncontrolled abandon. Only emergencies should cause you to "peg" your stick (push it up against the stoppers, beyond which it cannot move). Chasing the Gauges When you roll an aircraft left or right, pitch it up or down, change the throttle or the brakes, it takes time for the plane to "settle out". Good pilots fly by making a change, then waiting a couple of seconds to see the results. If you don't, you'll just "chase gauges" that are themselves still changing. Airspeed settles out much more slowly then other settings. It takes time for your plane to build up velocity or lose momentum in level flight. Check Out the Cockpit and the HUD The Controls Look at your Keyboard Reference Card, showing all the controls for your Fighter. The most often-used key commands are mnemonic, so they are easy to remember once you are familiar with them. The HUD The upper half of your screen represents the transparent HUD (head-up display), through which you can see the world beyond. The vertical scale on the left of the HUD indicates your airspeed and that on your right, your altitude. The horizontal scale across the top of the HUD indicates your heading. A full explanation of the symbols and numbers can be found further on. The HUD has two operating modes: AIR-AIR fro aerial combat, and AIR-GROUND for ground attacks. Arming a missile (tapping the Short-range, Medium-range, or Ground Attack Missile Keys) switches your HUD to the mode needed to operate the armed weapon automatically. For example, if you press the Short- range or Medium-range Missile Keys, your HUD is automatically set to AIR-AIR mode, because these missiles are air-air missiles; tapping the Ground Attack Missile Key places the HUD in AIR-GROUND mode, because your ground attack missiles are air-ground missiles. The Cockpit The lower half of your screen is the cockpit of your aircraft. The various elements are later on. We suggest you look at the three CRT displays to get familiar with them. * The left-side CRT shows a map of the world in which you will be flying. By tapping the Zoom Map Key you can zoom-in on the map; by tapping the Expand Map Key you zoom back out. * The centre CRT contains a radar tactical display showing the situation occurring in the immediate vicinity of your aircraft. * The right CRT is your tracking camera display. When your on-board targeting system is tracking a target, you get a close-up vies of the target in this display. Beneath the CRTs is a series of warning lights. The two leftmost (marked "R" and "I" respectively) are missile warning lights. When a radar-guided missile is flying at you the "R" light flashes; when an infrared-homing missile is coming at you the "I" light flashes (see Dealing with Missile Attacks for details). The other two lights indicate when your landing gear is extended ("L") and when your brakes are on ("B"). On the far left hand side of the cockpit is your fuel gauge (labelled "F") and on the far right is your throttle gauge (labelled "T"). The cockpit on the ST and Amiga versions also incorporates the following: In the lower left hand corner are gauges indicating how many Mavericks, Sidewinders, AMRAAMs, Chaff and Flares are left. Above the centre CRT (radar tactical display) is an indicator showing how many cannon rounds are left. Above the Fuel Gauge is the Autopilot On/Off indicator. Just below the HUD is the Message Window. On IBM compatible versions all the information outlined in the above paragraph is displayed on the HUD. Flying to the Target Level Flight Once airborne your first step is to achieve level flight. Push the control stick forward or back until the horizon is level across the middle of the HUD. Then make fine adjustments until you're neither gaining nor losing altitude. Flying on Course Now its time to get onto the right course. Look at the heading indicator across the top of your HUD and the INS Direction Indicator (the small, bright triangle somewhere on the top of the scale). Turn towards the indicator. As you turn the triangle moves towards the centre; when the triangle is in the centre of the scale you're "on course" to the first waypoint, your primary target. To turn, push the stick left or right - but do it gently - and the plane will bank. Release (centre) the stick when the bank angle of the horizon is about 45 degrees. To turn faster, pull back on the stick somewhat but watch your speed (on the left of the HUD) and altitude (on the right). A turn with back-pressure on the stick turns you much more quickly, but can slow your plane and rob you of lift, causing a drop in altitude. Minimum safe speeds varies with the current situation of your aircraft. A "stall indicator" bar rises from the bottom of the speed scale when you travel too slowly. If this bar reaches the tick-mark in the centre of the scale, your plane stalls - it is no longer airworthy, and begins to fall out of control. If this happens, lower the nose to retain speed, then pull out into level flight. Minimum safe altitude is about 300'. However, in this training mission stay at least 800' above the ground. Autopilot If you're confused about which direction to fly, and how to do it, just tap the Pilot, Automatic Key. it will take over immediately, turning you onto the correct course. If you're below 1000' the autopilot will climb to that altitude. If you touch the control stick the autopilot automatically turns off. Enjoying the Flight Once on course, enjoy yourself by trying out the nifty viewpoints available by toggling through the View Keys. You can return to the cockpit at any time: just tap the Cockpit Key. You can see out the front, rear, and sides of the cockpit canopy using the Look Front, Look Rear, Look Left and Look Right Keys. In mountain valleys and over urban areas the scenes can be thrilling. You can also step "outside" your aircraft and watch it using the Chase Plane, Slot View, and Side View Keys. Bank the plane left and right to observe the difference between the chase plane (where you appear to be in a plane following in the "footsteps" of the fighter) and the slot (where you remain behind the fighter and always remain level). The Tactical View, Reserve Tactical View and Missile View Keys are used in combat situations. These views show the target that is being tracked by your tracking camera and your aircraft (or missile). always keeping both on the screen. Accelerated Time On long journeys, you can speed the passing of time by tapping the Accelerate Time Key. This doubles the rate at which time passes. To return to normal time, simply tap the key again. Combat activity or landing will automatically return you to normal time. Attacking Enemy Aircraft While flying, you will, no doubt, see enemy aircraft. These fighters will attempt to stop you from reaching your target. You may want to destroy them. To do so, tap the Medium-range Missile Key. This arms one of your AMRAAM missiles and switches the HUD to AIR-AIR mode so that your targeting system will track enemy air targets. The tracked target will appear in the tracking camera CRT on the right side of the cockpit. Look at the display: it gives you the range to the aerial target (in kilometres) and the heading you must fly to get to it. If a tracking box appears on your HUD, the target is in front of your aircraft; if not, look at the heading in the tracking camera CRT and turn towards that heading until you see the tracking box (or oval) appear in your HUD. When this occurs, wait for the tracking box to become an oval (if it's not already) then tap the Fire Missile Key. This launches a missile. For more information about attacking enemy aircraft and dealing with enemy air attacks, see Chapter 4. If the enemy fighter is within 15 kms you'll want to use your Sidewinders instead of your AMRAAMs. To use the Sidewinders, tap the Short-range Missile Key, then follow the procedure above. You could, if you're feeling particularly heroic, attack the enemy fighters with your cannon. This is more difficult, but it saves missiles and is very gratifying if you hit. tap either the Medium- or Short-range Missile Key to get the HUD into AIR-AIR mode. This will cause a small circle to appear in the centre of the HUD; this is the gunsight. The gunsight is historical, that is, it shows where the shells would be hitting now if you had fired them 2 seconds earlier; therefore you must lead your target. (For details about the cannon and missiles, see Attacking the Enemy). Attacking the Target As you approach the primary target and the coast of Libya is on the horizon, it's time to start thinking about taking that target out. Arm your Mavericks Tap the Ground Attack Missile Key. This switches the HUD to AIR-GROUND mode and arms one of your Maverick missiles. As you get near the target, it will suddenly appear in your tracking camera screen. Don't be concerned if other targets appear there first; the tracking system locks-on to the nearest target. A message will tell you when the primary or secondary target is being tracked. You can search for your primary or secondary targets, or any other ground target, by tapping the Target Search Key. In AIR-GROUND mode this will cycle through all ground targets that your tracking system can find. You can stop any time you find a target you want to attack. Wait for Range, Altitude and Missile Lock You'll notice that a small box appears in the HUD. This is the "target box". The target seen on the tracking camera CRT is in the middle of this box. When you get within missile range the box changes to an oval shape. In addition, "Missile Lock" flashes on the tracking camera CRT. The oval shape means that your missile can hit if you attack at maximum speed. If you wait longer, eventually the oval changes colour. This means the missile can hit regardless of your speed. It's important that you not launch a weapon too low. You may be caught in the missiles explosion, or a missile may hit the ground before its motor can power it up and away. A simple rule to get you started is that safe launch of missiles requires at least 500' altitude. Launch When you have "missile lock", launch the missile by tapping the Fire Missile Key. After launching you may want to turn away slightly since flying through an exploding target could damage your aircraft. Shortly after the launch the missile should hit the target. A successful hit causes a fire and sends a cloud of smoke into the sky. Secondary Target You can now fly to the secondary target and attack it as well, using the same procedure. Returning Home Setting the INS to the Landing Point Tap the Waypoint Select Key until "Friendly Airbase" appears in the message window. This moves the Waypoint marker along the heading track at the top of the HUD to a new position indicating the heading to your airbase. Flying Home You can either use the autopilot or manually fly the plane home. As before, guide yourself using the heading scale (horizontal scale at the top of the HUD). When the INS Direction Indicator arrow is lined up on the centre of this scale, you're on course towards your home base. Now simply fly towards the base, and when you get near it your plane will land automatically. Congratulations! You've successfully completed your first mission as a fighter pilot. CHAPTER 2. OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS ================================= AIRCRAFT CONTROLS The Head-Up Display (HUD) The HUD is designed to provide crucial flight and weapon information in a graphic format. HUD data is projected onto a wide-angle clear plane in the front of the cockpit. You look through the HUD to the outside world. As a result, valuable information is right in front of your eyes, where you can see it and the outside situation simultaneously. HUD Modes The HUD display has two modes: AIR-AIR and AIR-GROUND. When you tap either the Short-range Missile or Medium-range Missile Keys the HUD switches to AIR- AIR mode automatically. When you tap the Ground Attack Missile Key, the HUD automatically switches to AIR-GROUND mode. AIR-AIR mode is for attacking enemy aircraft; your tracking system will track these targets only. AIR-GROUND is for attacking ground targets; your tracking system is restricted to these targets. Some HUD information is universal across all modes. Other information is specific, available in just one of the modes. AIR-AIR Mode Indicators When your HUD is in AIR-AIR mode, you will know by the presence of the following: Missile Targeting Envelope: This is a large circle fixed on the HUD. It represents the area of sky in which an air-air missile can be aimed and "locked-on" to a target. Gunsight: In AIR-AIR mode the gunsight circle replaces the flight path indicator. The gunsight shows where your shells would be landing if you'd fired two seconds ago (the time it takes for them to travel the 6 km maximum range). If you're tracking a target that's closer then 6 km, it shows where the shells would land if you'd fired the proper time in the past for them to have travelled that range. See Your M61A1 20mm Vulcan for details on using the gunsight. AIR-GROUND Mode Indicators AIR-GROUND mode is indicated by the absence of the missile targeting envelope and presence of the flight path indicator, which replaces the gunsight. This indictor shows the direction you are flying (which may be different from the nose indicator). The plane is geometrically level when the nose indicator and flight path indicator overlap. However, this is rare in an aircraft. Furthermore, level flight (where you are neither climbing nor diving) often requires the nose to be pitched slightly above the flight path, to achieve a useful angle of attack. See Flight Techniques, for more information. Universal HUD Information The great majority of information displayed on the HUD is available to you regardless of the mode your HUD is currently in. This information is described below. Airspeed: Your airspeed appears on the left-side vertical scale, in knots. Heading: Your heading (the absolute direction towards which you are flying, where 000 degrees is North, 180 degrees is South, 90 degrees East and 270 degrees West) is indicated along the horizontal strip across the top of your HUD with one of the ticks on the scale you determine your absolute heading. Altitude: Your altitude appears on the right-side vertical scale, in feet. Tracking Box: Your fighter is equipped with a computerised optical tracker. A small box - a tracking box - appears around the nearest target ahead, to help you locate it. The HUD mode determines whether ground or air targets are tracked. Of course, the tracking box is visible only when the target is in front of you. On most systems the tracking box is colour-coordinated with the current armament. The colour of the box indicates whether the current weapon is effective against the target being tracked. See the Technical Supplement for more details on colours. Missile Lock: The tracking box turns into an oval when the currently-armed missile is "locked on" to the target. This is a maximum range shot. A missile fired at this point may or may not hit. When the oval changes colour, the shot is now a "sure thing", with hardly any chance of missing. Stall Speed Indicator: At times a coloured bar rises form the bottom of your airspeed scale; this represents the stall speed. If it rises above the centre tick-mark, your plane stalls (see Stalls for more information). Vertical Velocity Indicator (VVI): A coloured bar extending upwards or downwards from the centre tick-mark on the altitude scale indicates your fighter's vertical velocity. If the VVI bar extends downwards, your plane is losing altitude; if the VVI bar extends upwards, your plane is gaining altitude. Each tick-mark represents 100' per minute. Therefore, the larger the bar, the faster you're losing or gaining altitude. Landing Speed Indicator: This coloured arrow appears on the altitude scale only when your landing gear is down. It indicates the safe maximum VVI for landing. If the VVI bar extends below this mark, landing is dangerous. INS (Waypoint) Direction Indicator: The arrow on the top of the heading scale shows the heading you should fly to reach the currently selected Inertial Navigation System (INS) "waypoint". To get "on course", align the arrow with the centre tick-mark. For each mission, your Inertial Navigation System is preprogrammed with the primary and secondary targets and the airbase at which will land after completing your mission. You can cycle through these waypoints by tapping the Waypoint Select Key. Nose Indicator: This cross-hairs symbol is fixed in the middle of the HUD, and represents the direction you nose currently points. Pitch Lines: Pitch lines appear on the HUD when the horizon is invisible due to radical climbing or diving. Each pitch line represents 10 degrees of pitch up or down. If your aircraft is geometrically level, pitch is 0 degrees. If the aircraft is diving straight down or climbing straight up the pitch is 90 degrees. Roll is indicated by the relative angle of the horizon or pitch line to the cockpit and nose indicator. If the horizon or a pitch line is perfectly horizontal, your craft is level. If the line slants to the left or right, your craft is rolled to the left or right. Radio Messages: Coded burst transmissions arrive by radio periodically. These are decoded by your on-board computers and displayed as text in the message window. Weapons and Defences Updates Whenever you arm a new missile, by tapping the appropriate missile key, a message indicating this appears in the message window. Whenever you release a chaff or flare (see Dealing With Missile Attacks, for details) a message appears in the message window indicating you have released the defence. Cockpit Displays The Satellite Map Your fighter is equipped with three CRT displays inside the cockpit to help you identify threats and fly to your target area. This CRT appears on the left side of the cockpit and portrays the geographical features of the region. It is orientated so North is always towards the top of the CRT. Your primary and secondary targets appear on this map as coloured crosses. Enemy radar signals are displayed graphically: dotted lines are pulse radar, solid arcs are doppler radar. Ground search radar are entire 360 degree circles, while ground fire-control tracking radar are short arcs. Aircraft radar, search or fire-control, are short arcs except for AEW&C aircraft (the II-76 "Mainstay" or E-3C "Sentry"), which have an entire 360 degree circle. Missiles and aircraft also appear on this map as colour-coded squares. See the Technical Supplement for more details. You can zoom in on or expand the map by tapping the Zoom or Expand Keys. The Tactical Display This map is drawn by your computer from analysis of radar signals. It portrays the tactical situation surrounding your fighter and is orientated so the top corresponds to your flight path. Thus the map rotates as you turn. The display graphically depicts aircraft, missiles, ground radar sources, airfields and incidental ground targets. A 16 km square grid is superimposed for range reference. See the Technical Supplement for details on the colour coding of this map. Warning: The airbase symbols on this map are icons only. They may not be correctly aligned. Do not use this map for landings! Radar Ranges: You can adjust the range of the radar signals that draw this map. Tap the Radar Range Key to change to short, medium, or long-range radar, thus changing the scale of the tactical display. Tracking Camera CRT The camera CRT, located on the right side of the cockpit, shows a close-up view of the target being tracked. In addition, it displays the type of target tracked (the type of aircraft or ground installation), the range to the target, and the heading at which you must fly to reach it. Primary and secondary objectives are listed as such. Civilian and friendly targets (which you shouldn't hit) are noted also. Fuel and Throttle Gauges Your F-15 cockpit has two gauges: a throttle gauge and a fuel gauge. The gauge with the letter "T" beneath it is the throttle gauge and indicates the amount of thrust being generated. On the extreme left side of the cockpit is an illuminated vertical bar with an "F" beneath it. This is your fuel gauge. As you use fuel during a mission this bar shortens. Missile Warning Lights At the bottom of the cockpit are found warning lights. One marked "R" and the other marked "I". The "R" stands for radar and this light begins flashing when a radar-guided missile is in the air and tracking you. The "I" stands for infrared and this light flashes when an infrared-homer is in the air and tracking your fighter. Landing Gear and Brake Warning Light When your landing gear is extended, the "L" light is illuminated. If your fighter is going to fast for the gear to be safely extended, this light flashes. When your brakes (air or wheel) are on the "B" light is illuminated. Weapons Readout Along the lower left side of the cockpit is a panel that gives a constant digital readout of the number of each type of missile you have remaining. The leftmost shows AMRAAMs (medium range AAM), the centre shows Sidewinders (short range AAM), and the right, Mavericks (AGM). For details about your missiles, see Attacking the Enemy. Defences Readout Along the lower side of the cockpit are two indicators showing how many Chaff Cartridges and Flares you have remaining, labelled C and F. For details about your defence systems, see Dealing with Missile Attacks. Autopilot Indicator In the upper left side of the cockpit is Autopilot On/Off indicator. When the Autopilot is activated, the indicator is illuminated. Flight Controls Control Stick Your fighter has a standard aircraft control stick. Pushing the stick forward pitches the plane down, pulling it back pitches it up. Pushing the stick left rolls left, while pushing it right rolls right. Note that the more you push the stick, the more the aircraft pitches or rolls in that direction. When you release the stick (ie. centre it) the aircraft remains in the new attitude until you move the stick again. Controlling the Throttle The throttle controls the power output of your engines. Maximum throttle ("full military power") gives you maximum speed and performance, but also uses up fuel faster. Throttle Controls: The Maximum Power Key immediately opens the throttle, giving you maximum thrust. The No Power Key closes the throttle, shutting down the engines. The Increase Throttle Key opens the throttle a small amount. The Decrease Throttle Key closes the throttle a small amount. The Afterburner: Your fighter is equipped with an afterburner that allows you to gain a sudden burst of thrust power at the expense of a great deal of fuel. To use the afterburner, fly at top speed, then tap the Afterburner Key and watch as your airspeed shoots up dramatically. This can be very useful in tight situations where escape is the better part of valour. Eject (Bail Out) There are situations when it is best to bail out of your aircraft. When you are so damaged by enemy fire that you can no longer keep the aircraft in the air, it's probably time to eject. Just tap the Eject Key and you're out. Do not, however, eject if your fighter is inverted, or if you are less then 100' from the ground; you'll end your career if you do. Landing Gear The Landing Gear Key toggles your landing gear up and down. The "L" light in the cockpit indicates the landing gear position (see the Technical Supplement for colours). If the "L" light flashes, it means the gear is down at too high a speed - you should either slow down or raise the landing gear. Extended landing gear slows you down, and high speeds can rip it off entirely. Brakes If your aircraft is airborne, the Brake Key toggles the airbrake retracted (in) and extended (out). When the brake is extended the aircraft slows down because the airbrake causes extra drag. If the aircraft is on the ground, the Brake Key toggles the landing gear brakes on and off. In either case, if the brakes are on, the "B" light is illuminated in the lower right corner of the cockpit. Automatic Pilot The Pilot, Automatic Key toggles the automatic pilot on and off. The autopilot, when active, flies you towards the current INS waypoint. If you're below 1000' altitude, the autopilot climbs to that altitude. When the autopilot is turned on, the autopilot light will be illuminated, or a message will appear in the centre of the HUD. If you touch the control stick in any way, the autopilot turns off. Warning: The autopilot does not avoid hills and mountains! Weapons and Defences These instructions give only the bare rudiments of how to operate each weapon. Many important secondary considerations (like not launching some to low) and tactical tricks are described in Air Combat. Weapons Missiles: To fire a missile you must first arm it. This is done by tapping the appropriate key for the missile you want to fire. Once a missile of a particular type has been armed all missiles of that type are armed until you arm a missile of another type. To arm your: * medium-range air-to-air missiles (AMRAAMs), tap the Medium-range Missile Key. * short-range air-to-air missiles (Sidewinders), tap the Short-range Missile Key. * ground attack missiles (Mavericks), tap the Ground Attack Missile Key. When a missile is armed, a brief message appears in the message window indicating the name of that missile. Once armed a missile may be fired by tapping the Fire Missile Key. Before firing a missile, make sure your targeting system is locked on to a target (the targeting box is an oval). If you want to be more certain of a hit, wait for the oval to change colour. (For more information about your missiles and how and when to fire them see Firing Your Missiles). Missile Targeting: When you arm a missile, the targeting system in the missile begins tracking the closest possible target, and this target appears in your tracking camera CRT. This may or may not be the target you want to track. If you've armed an air-to-air missile, the tracking system will focus only on the closest target. But if the missile you've armed is a ground-attack missile, you can tap the Target Search Key to switch to a different target. You can cycle through all possible ground targets by repeatedly tapping the Target Search Key until you find the target you want to track. Note that when an armed ground-attack missile (a Maverick) finds the primary or secondary target, a message appears on the tracking camera CRT informing you of this. Cannon: Your 20mm cannon is always available for use (unless out of ammo or damaged); it does not have to be armed, To fire the cannon, press the Fire Cannon Key to fire one burst. Defences Your fighter is equipped with two types of missile evasion devices: chaff and flares. Chaff is used to confuse radar-guided missiles and flares are used to fool infrared-homing missiles (see Dealing With Missile Attacks for more information). * To release a chaff cartridge, tap the Chaff Release Key. * To release a flare, tap the Flare Release Key. VIEWS AND SIMULATION CONTROLS As an aid to learning flight manoeuvres, a variety of out-of-plane viewpoints are available. In all these views your viewpoint is outside of your aircraft, looking at it and/or the enemy. These alternative views can be very helpful in learning manoeuvres because you can clearly see the effect your actions have on the flight of the plane. Views Return to Cockpit Press the Cockpit Key to return to the normal, in-the-cockpit viewpoint. This control is used to get you back into the cockpit - looking through the HUD - after you've switched to another view. Look Front Tap the Look Front Key to look out the front of your fighter. Look Left Tap the Look Left Key to look out the left side of your fighter. Look Right Tap the Look Right Key to look out the right side of your fighter. Look Rear Tap the Look Rear Key to look out the back of your fighter. Slot View Press the Slot View Key. Here you are positioned directly behind your fighter. This view is named for the famous "in the slot" position used by aerial acrobatic teams. Unlike the chase plane view, slot view remains level with the ground, do you can clearly see the degree of pitch and roll your fighter is making. The Zoom and Expand Keys function in this view, moving your viewpoint closer to (Zoom) or farther from (Expand) the fighter. This view is an excellent one for learning the most efficient and effective flight manoeuvres. Chase Plane View Press the Chase Plane Key. Here you are positioned in a hypothetical "chase aircraft" that follows a short distance behind your fighter. Although this view is very dramatic, its use as a teaching and learning aid is limited. Side View Press the Side View Key. Here your viewpoint is from the right side of the fighter. The Zoom and Expand Keys function in this view, moving your viewpoint closer to (Zoom) or farther from (Expand). This view can provide a useful reference point. It's also an excellent way to check the state of your landing gear. Missile launches are most dramatic when seen from this viewpoint. Missile View Press the Missile View Key. In this view, you are positioned directly behind your own missile as it flies to its target. If more then one weapon is in flight, you are positioned behind the missile launched most recently. If no ordnance is in flight, you are positioned behind the plane, and will follow the first item launched. The Zoom and Expand Keys move your viewpoint closer to (Zoom) and farther from (Expand) the missile. This view is very entertaining, as it lets you follow the weapon directly to the target. If you're having trouble understanding why your weapons sometimes miss, switching to this view after launch can be helpful. Tactical View Press the Tactical View Key. Here you are positioned near your fighter, but looking past it at whatever target is being tracked on your tracking camera. This view automatically rotates to keep both your fighter and its target in view. The Zoom and Expand Keys function in this view, moving your viewpoint closer to (Zoom) or farther from (Expand) the fighter. This view is invaluable when dogfighting. It helps you outmanoeuvre and line up on an opponent (although it's wise to return to the cockpit before shooting, to avoid wasting ammo). The view is also useful if you want to return for a second or third attack run on a ground target. Reverse Tactical View Press the Reverse Tactical View Key. Here you are positioned near the fighter's target, looking past it at your own fighter. The target may be another plane, or a ground target - whatever your tracking camera is following. In either case, you see the target in the foreground, and your fighter far away. In fact, often you fighter is nothing but a dot in the sky. This view automatically rotates and pans to keep both the target and your plane in view. The Zoom and Expand Keys function in this view, moving your viewpoint closer (Zoom) or farther from (Expand) the target. Experienced pilots find this a very dramatic view when making attack runs on ground targets. It's a great showoff view, swinging to follow your plane as you fly overhead. Director Mode Press the Director Mode Key to cycle through the three Director settings, Director 1, Director 2 and Director Off. Director Mode is provided to allow you to watch all the outstanding views described above at the most appropriate time. Director 2 allows you to see action from anywhere within the theatre. Whenever you receive a radio transmission describing an event taking place within the theatre (such as an enemy plane scrambling to intercept you, or a SAM firing a missile at you), the Director 2 mode will show this to you. Director 2 will also show you when you fire a missile or when someone fires at you. Director 1 shows only those actions which you have directly initiated, such as missile launches, target destruction. Director mode can be very entertaining but it is not recommended when you are in close proximity to enemy fighters, because it can be distracting when you are trying to dogfight. We recommend that you use Director mode only when not near the enemy, or when showing the game off to your friends. Simulation Controls Pause The Pause Key immediately and instantly freezes the simulation. To resume action, press any key. Some computers have a special "pause" or "hold" key. Depending on the internal design of your machine, this key may also work. Accelerated Time The Accelerated Time Key doubles the rate at which time passes. Accelerated time is useful when flying long distances without encountering and significant threats or opposition. "ACCEL" appears on the HUD when the accelerated time option is on. tapping the Accelerated Time Key again returns the simulation to its normal time rate. You should return to normal time before combat; it's very hard to control your fighter and respond to enemy actions in accelerated time. Re-supply The Re-supply Key is available only in training missions. Pressing this key fills the plane's fuel tanks and gives it extra weapons. Re-supply is designed for sight-seeing and target practice. Detail Adjust The Detail Adjust Key allows you to change the amount and depth of ground detail visible through the cockpit. See the Technical Supplement for details. In general the slower your computer, the lower the level of detail you should use. Volume Adjust The Volume Adjust Key allows you to change the type and variety of sounds used in the simulation. See the Technical Supplement for details. When you press the key, the new sound setting appears briefly on the HUD. Your Career as a Fighter Pilot As a fighter pilot in F-15 Strike Eagle II you will fly missions at four different levels of difficulty - Rookie, Pilot, Veteran and Ace - and in six theatres - Libya, Persian Gulf, Vietnam, Middle East, North Cape and Central Europe. See Chapter 5, Theatres, for more details. Promotions and Medals For each mission you fly successfully, you receive points. When you've accumulated enough points you will be promoted, and if you receive a large number of points in a single mission, you may receive special commendation in the form of a medal. The Pilot Roster Each time you boot up the game and before each new mission you will be shown the Pilot Roster. This screen shows the ranks, scores and medals of pilots that have flown before, and allows you to continue the career of a pilot who is still active or begin a new pilot's career. You may erase a pilot from the roster, but if you do it is permanent and cannot be undone. Refer to your Technical Supplement for more information about loading and saving the roster. Difficulty Levels and Theatres After each mission you are given a choice of difficulty level and theatre. you may choose any theatre or difficulty level you like, but be warned that the higher difficulty levels are no "piece of cake" and you'll probably want some times in the easier ones to gain experience. There are six theatres arranged in the following order of difficulty; Libya, Persian Gulf, Vietnam, Middle East, North Cape and Central Europe. You can score more points in the higher risk areas, but you may last longer if you progress through the theatres and difficulty levels slowly. You are never forced to progress to a new theatre or level of difficulty, but the game does suggest a slow, steady progression. Ending Your Career A pilot's career ends when he is killed, which can occur in one of two ways: 1. he crashes or unsuccessfully bails out of the fighter during a mission, or 2. he bails out of the fighter (even successfully) too many times during his career. Becoming a Casualty There are two ways of being killed: crashing your fighter or bailing out under less then desirable circumstances. Crashing: As you are hit by enemy fire during a mission and your plane becomes more damaged, it also becomes less and less effective - harder to fly, slower, and less manoeuvrable. Your airspeed will decrease to the extent where you may go into a stall from which you can't recover. Finally, your fighter will crash. It's a good idea to bail out before you reach this point, because if your fighter crashes while you are aboard, you'll be killed. Fatal Bail Out: If you eject (by tapping the Eject Key) at an altitude less then 2000' or greater then 14,000' you stand a good chance of being killed. In addition, if you bail out while the plane is inverted you will almost certainly lose your life. Too Many Bail Outs: The Air Force will retire you from active flight duty if you lose to many of its expensive jet fighters. If you bail out of the fighter too often during a career, you end your career. Missions Mission Objectives Your objective in ever mission is given to you by your commanding officer on the "Today's Mission" screen. You will constantly be the object of enemy SAM and AAM fire and may have to dogfight enemy fighters, but success is measured by whether you destroy your objectives. Scoring To obtain a high score, you must destroy the primary and secondary targets and shoot down as many enemy aircraft as possible. You should always assume a full state of war exists with the enemy and should cripple him as much as possible. Therefore, destroying enemy ground installations such as SAM radars, oil storage facilities, runways, missile boats and so on is also very good. Remember though, that your primary and secondary targets must take priority. Ending a Mission A mission ends once both your main targets are destroyed and you have landed or bailed out safely. Safe Landing After you've destroyed the primary and secondary targets you can land at any friendly base to end the mission. When you land, stop and turn off your engines. Once you've destroyed your main targets, you cannot replenish fuel or ammunition (see Landing the Fighter). Landing During a Mission: Until you destroy your targets, you cannot end a mission by landing the fighter. You may replenish your weapons during a mission by landing at any friendly airbase. But you cannot end the mission at this time unless the primary and secondary targets have been destroyed; you may only replenish your supply of weapons. You should not land until both main targets are destroyed and you are ready to end the mission, because replenishing your weapons during a mission costs you a substantial portion of your final score. Safe Bail Out When you bail out of your aircraft under safe conditions (not inverted, and not too low) you end the mission. If you have destroyed your primary and secondary targets, the mission is considered a success, even though you didn't bring the fighter home. Safe ejection can be accomplished between 2000' and 14,000' altitude with your fighter in a gentle climb. Ejecting outside of these limits, especially at low altitude or in an inverted dive, can kill you, thus ending your career. Warning: Strike Eagles are expensive pieces of equipment. The Air Force values its pilots but it also values its planes. If you bail out too many times during your career, the Air Force will take away your wings and give you a desk job, ending your career. Being Captured: Where you eject is important as well. Ejecting over friendly territory, or over water away from an enemy coastline is ideal - you can easily be rescued. If you eject over enemy territory or near an enemy coastline, however, you may be captured. You, of course, are a top pilot, so the authorities will not let you languish in a POW camp; you are exchanged if you are captured. Your career doesn't end - but you will not receive a good score. Mission Review After completing a mission, you may watch a replay of what happened. Just select "Review Mission" from the "Mission Debriefing" screen. Multi-Player Option If you want to play F-15 II competitively against another player, there is a "same mission" option. Any time you choose the same difficulty level and same theatre as the immediately preceding mission, the game will ask you if you want to fly the same mission as the one just completed. If you say yes to this question, the next mission will have the same primary and secondary targets as the previous one and the fighter will begin the mission from the same base. This is very convenient for playing against an opponent. Each player can fly his own pilot in identical missions and try to score the most points. CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT TECHNIQUES ============================ FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT The Forces Four Basic forces act upon an aircraft in flight: thrust, drag, weight and lift. Thrust pushes the plane forward; it varies with engine power. Drag (friction) reduces the effort of thrust and is relatively constant. Gravity pulls the plane towards the ground, regardless of the plane's altitude. Lift pushes upward from the wings, directly opposing gravity. Lift Aircraft fly because of the difference in pressure created by air flowing over and under the wings. The wing design causes air to flow faster over the top of the wing then under the bottom, creating high pressure beneath the wing and low pressure above it. This difference in pressure pushes the wing upwards and is called lift. If the pressure difference is great enough, the upward lift is greater then the plane's weight (ie. the force of gravity) and the aircraft flies. Speed and Lift The amount of lift generated by the wing varies with airspeed. The faster the plane flies, the faster the airflow, so the greater the pressure difference. If your plane is in level flight, reducing the speed reduces lift and causes a decent (even though you didn't point the nose down). Angle of Attack and Lift The amount of lift generated also varies according to the angle between the wing and airflow. If you pull the nose up (thereby changing the angle of the wing relative to the airflow), you increase the pressure difference, increasing your lift. If you dive, the reverse occurs. This difference between the airflow direction and a line through the wing (the wing "chord") is the "angle of attack". Angle of attack is visible on your HUD in AIR-GROUND mode. In level flight, whenever your nose indicator is above your flight path, the difference between the two is the angle of attack. The Effect of a Roll Lift is a force perpendicular to the wing. If the wings are tilted (you are rolling or banking the fighter) the lift force is no longer straight up. Instead it has two components: one moving the aircraft sideways, the other straight up. This causes the plane to turn. However, it also reduces the force opposing gravity. During a turn a pilot can adjust the angle of attack by control stick "back pressure", that is, by pulling back slightly on the stick. The amount of adjustment needed is very small. Overcorrection is a common error among beginner pilots. Achieving Level Flight To achieve "level flight" at a given power setting, raise or lower the nose of your fighter until the VVI shows zero (ie. no accent or decent appears on the "V" strip gauge). Note that a pitch of 0 degrees may show ascent or decent, depending on airspeed. Nosing up or down to a new "angle of attack" adds or subtracts lift as needed to achieve level flight. Never assume that a pitch of zero automatically means level flight. Stalls An aerodynamic stall occurs when the wing's angle of attack becomes too large. The air stops flowing smoothly over the wing, and instead part of the airflow breaks away onto an independent path. This erases the pressure difference, vastly reduces lift, and generally causes the nose to drop. Stall speed varies considerably depending on aircraft altitude, flap configuration, etc. Tight turns increase the stall speed. Simultaneously, the act of turning will tend to decrease your airspeed. As a result, stalls are quite common in tight turns. Your fighter has an audible stall warning horn and a thin, coloured bar showing stall speed on the HUDs airspeed indicator. HOW TO FLY If you are flying at Rookie level, you will not have to worry about takeoffs and landings - you begin the game already flying, and after you've destroyed your primary and secondary targets you can simply fly towards a friendly airbase and be landed automatically. All other difficulty levels require you to take off. Following are some guidelines on how to take off, fly, and land in your fighter. Taking Off Look at the satellite map on the left side of the dashboard and note the locations of the primary and secondary targets for your mission. Now look at the heading scale along the top of your HUD and tap the Waypoint Select Key several times, noting the positions of the waypoint marker. Leave the marker pointing to the target you want to attack first. Check your ordnance (tap the Short- and Medium-range Missile Keys and the Ground Attack Missile Key) to familiarize yourself with the weapons you are carrying. Accelerate Turn on your engines by tapping the Maximum Power Key. As you move down the runway or carrier deck, watch the speed scale (left side of the HUD) very carefully. A thin, coloured bar on the side of that scale will gradually go down. This is the Stall Speed Indicator. When the bar drops below the centre tick-mark your plane is past stall speed. This happens very quickly on a carrier deck, and somewhat slower on a runway. Climb and Turn onto Course Once past stall speed, pull back gently on the stick. Watch the altitude scale on the right side of the HUD: you'll start climbing. Push the control stick left or right until the waypoint marker along the top of the HUD matches up with the centre tick of the heading scale. Alternatively, you can simply tap the Pilot. Automatic Key and let your autopilot turn you onto the correct course to the first waypoint. Flying the Fighter A Light Touch Use a light touch on your controller. The most common pilot error is a "ham- fist" on the stick, throwing the plane around the sky in uncontrolled abandon. That kind of heavy-handed flying may be fun in a dogfight but, it's totally useless for lining up a cannon shot, or making a landing. Unless it's an emergency use light, smooth stick movements. Chasing the Gauges When you change an aircraft's operating regime, by moving the stick, changing the throttle, etc., the effects of the change don't happen instantly. It takes a second or two for your gauges and displays to "settle out" and show the new situation. For smooth flying a pilot always makes a change, then observes the effects. Constant adjustment and correction should be avoided, because all you'll do is "chase the gauges", overcorrecting every move. Straight and Level Flight To be a good combat pilot, you need to master level flight. Do this in a training scenario, rather then real life. Climb to 2000' (2K on the HUD altimeter) and level the aircraft so the nose of the plane points at the horizon. Now reduce the throttle to about 75% to achieve an economical cruising speed. Although the nose indicator on the HUD may appear level with the horizon, a glance at the VVI probably shows that you are gradually climbing or descending. If climbing, push forward slightly on the stick and let go and see what happens; if you're descending pull back. Your goal is to keep the altimeter rock steady. You'll notice that your flight path indicator aims at the horizon, but your nose indicator may be pointed above or below it, depending on your speed. Generally, the slower you're travelling, the higher you must pitch the nose to achieve level flight. Experiment. Tap the Brakes Key. This slows your plane. Watch the HUD and notice how the flight path indicator drops as your speed and altitude drop. To achieve level flight at this new, lower speed, pitch up (pull back on the stick) until the flight path indicator is level with the horizon. You may need to adjust once or twice to find the setting. Turning Beware of stalls when pulling tight turns. As your roll angle increases beyond 45 degrees (when turning right or left), your stall speed rises from the normal 120 knot range to over 200 knots (in a 90 degree roll). Since tight turns can "bleed off" airspeed, a long, tight turn may reduce your airspeed below the stall speed. Keeping an eye on your speed is especially important when making tight turns at low altitude - a stall can mean a crash! To make a very tight turn, roll to 80 or 90 degrees. Then you can significantly increase your turn rate by pulling back on the stick. However, this trick bleeds off airspeed even faster then a bank turn, and the danger of a stall increases accordingly. Climbing Ballistic ("straight up") climbs cannot be maintained for excessive periods: the engines are insufficient for a prolonged ballistic climb. Remember that any prolonged vertical manoeuvre greatly reduces airspeed. However, going vertical is a very clever manoeuvre for changing direction, since you can roll while vertical, quickly pointing your nose in any desired direction, then push down into level flight again. For details of these types of manoeuvre, see Dogfighting. Low Altitude Flying At altitudes under 500' you can expect increased buffets, downdrafts, and other irregularities that make flying difficult. Also beware of low ridges and mountains. It's easy to fly into a mountain if you're not looking. Good pilot develop a "cross check" routine of scanning the entire HUD periodically, to make sure everything is okay. In "Rookie" and "Pilot" flight options you have a barometric/laser altimeter. If you drop below 300' this device automatically but gently pushes your plane above 300'. Be warned, the device automatically turns off when the landing gear is down or when the gun is firing. The device is not proof against power dives, stalls or other radical manoeuvres, but works fine in normal flight regimes. In fully realistic flight the automatic altimeter that keeps you above 300' is turned off. This allows a skilful pilot to cruise at extremely low altitudes. Landing the Fighter One of the more difficult manoeuvres in flying the plane is getting it safely back on the ground. If playing in Rookie difficulty level, all you have to do to land the plane is fly toward a friendly airbase; when you get near the base, the plane will be set down on the airstrip almost immediately. If playing in higher difficulty levels, you have the choice of landing the plane yourself or allowing the autopilot to land it for you. About Airbases All ground runways and aircraft carriers have a North-South orientation. On approach, a course of 000 (if coming form the south) or 180 (if coming from the north) will aim you directly at the runway. Airbase runways are more then twice as long as your safe landing distance at 200 knots, so you have a large safety margin. Aircraft carriers have arrestor wires on the stern. You must touch down before or on these wires, which catch and stop your plane. If you miss you'll roll off the deck. Do not attempt to land on the bow of an aircraft carrier. There are no arrestor wires there, and other aircraft spotted for launching may be positioned there - you don't want to crash into them. Automatic Landing Players who don't want to worry about learning to land the aircraft may use autopilot to land the plane for them. To do this, select friendly airbase with the Waypoint Select Key. Then turn the autopilot on (tap the Pilot, Automatic Key) and sit back and watch the plane land. You still may be shot by an enemy aircraft and ground-based weapons, but the autopilot will land your aircraft perfectly every time. This approach can be quite useful in learning to land. Watch the fighter's HUD and panel to get an idea of timing, descent, braking and so on in approaching the runway. After a few times you'll probably be ready to attempt a landing unassisted. Straight-in Approach Landing Probably the easiest way to land the fighter, short of the autopilot, is to take the straight in approach. Simply put, you find the airfield, approach it from directly North or South, and slowly descend towards the runway. Just before touchdown, open the brakes. That's it in a nutshell, but for more detail read on. Line-up the Approach: Set the waypoint marker on the airbase (by tapping the Waypoint Select Key). Set your course so that you approach the heading 000, or 180. Beginners should plan to begin this approach about 40 km to 50 km from the runway. Attempting to find the approach and make a landing less then 20 km from the base is not advised for beginners. Approach at 300 knots: As you approach in level flight, reduce your throttle until the airspeed shows 300 knots (about 70% throttle). You'll need to raise the nose 5 to 7 degrees to maintain level flight until you're about 20 km from the airbase or carrier. Throttle 50%, Gear Down: Now reduce the throttle to about 50%. This slows the plane to about 230 knots. As you reach this speed, lower your landing gear. If you're moving too fast, extend the brakes (tap the Brake Key) for a brief period, then retract them again. Descend: There are two methods for descending. One is to reduce the power slightly. If you were in level flight, you know have less thrust and will gradually descend. This method is generally preferred by pilots. The other method is to reduce the pitch of the nose slightly. Typically you're landing with the nose pitched up about 5 to 7 degrees, to maintain level flight at low power. Therefore, reduce this upward pitch a few degrees to cause a gradual descent - do not point the nose down and dive for the runway. In either case, your nose should always have a positive pitch (the nose indicator should be above the flight path indicator). Keep an eye on your airspeed and stall bar. If the stall bar indicator is too close to your current airspeed (within 25 knots), your throttle is too low or you're flying with brakes on. Increase the throttle or take off the brakes. Conversely, if you're moving too fast (over 250 knots), extend the brakes (tap the Brake Key) for a brief period, then retract them again. Touchdown on Runways: Your altimeter will read 0' on a runway and 125' on an aircraft carrier deck. These are your "touchdown" altitudes. The safe touchdown vertical velocity is shown by an arrow on the VVI portion of your HUD altimeter. A VVI of 400'/minute or less (4 ticks on the scale) is always safe. The easiest and safest touchdown is simply to gradually continue the descent until you're on the runway. Then cut the power (tap the No Power Key) and engage the brakes (tap the Brakes Key). Touchdown on Aircraft Carriers: Landing on a carrier is slightly more difficult, since you must touch down in the arrestor cables area. To avoid overshooting the cables, increase your descent by lowering the nose a little extra, then at the last second extend the air brake (tap the Brakes Key) as you pull the nose back up a bit. If you miss the carrier's arrestor cable area, don't bother trying to touch down. Instead close the brakes (if you opened them earlier) and hit maximum throttle (tap the Maximum Power Key). Since your nose is pointed up, you'll climb upward again. CHAPTER 4. AIR COMBAT ===================== ATTACKING THE ENEMY Your Strike Eagle is equipped with three types of missiles and one cannon. Two of the missile types, the AIM-9M Sidewinder and the AIM-120A AMRAAM, are air-to-air missiles, or AAMs. They are used for destroying enemy aircraft. The other, the AGM-65D "maverick" is an air-to-ground missile, or AGM. It is for firing at targets on the ground. The cannon (M61A1 20mm "Vulcan") may be used effectively against either air or ground, although it is far more difficult to hit targets with the cannon. Missiles in General Radar-Guided Missiles There are essentially three types of radar-guided missiles: beam riders, semi-active homers and active homers. The vast majority of radar guided missiles fall into the first two categories, relying upon a radar beam emanating from the launcher to guide it to the target. This means that the launcher, whether an aircraft or ground-based radar station, must continue to track the target until the missile reaches it. The third type, called active homers, is the most technologically advanced, the most expensive, and the most deadly; they transmit and receive their own radar signals, so once fired, they guide themselves to the target. These are commonly called "fire- and-forget" weapons. Most long- and medium-range missiles are radar guided, because of the penetration power and range of radar beams. Infrared-Homing Missiles All infrared (IR)-homing missiles are "fire-and-forget" weapons. These home- in on the heat coming out of your fighter's exhaust system or from the tips of the wings, where air friction makes them hot. Early IR-homers were somewhat unreliable because they were not very sensitive to differences in temperatures; they were easily confused by non- target heat sources, such as the sun or even hot rocks on the ground. Modern IR-homing systems are tuned to finer changes in temperature and ignore all but heat signatures characteristic of aircraft. Your Missiles AMRAAMs Your AIM-120A AMRAAM missile is one of the best medium-range weapons in the world. It is the only "fire-and-forget" radar-guided missile in the American inventory. It has sufficient circuitry to penetrate most enemy defences, and sufficient manoeuvrability to chase down most fighters, not to mention nailing bombs and transports. Because the AMRAAM has greater range then the Sidewinder (32 km compared to 17 km), pilots typically open fire at long range with the AIM-120, then switch to Sidewinders if any enemy aircraft survive to that range. Note: The AMRAAM has been in development for a number of years and is not yet generally available. They are available for your Strike Eagle, though. Sidewinders The short-range, IR-homing AIM-9M Sidewinder is probably the best dogfighting missile in the world. It is more manoeuvrable then the AMRAAM, giving it a better chance of "hanging on" to a twisting, turning target. The most advantageous firing position for the Sidewinder is up the enemy's tailpipes. The next best position is from above, diving down onto the top (hot side) of the enemy plane. The third best position is directly into the enemy's nose. Shots against the enemy as it crosses in front of you, or at its underside (the cold side) have very little chance of hitting. The main weakness of the Sidewinder is its limited range. Mavericks Your AGM-65D Maverick is an air-to-ground missile, used for destroying targets on the ground. It is a "fire-and-forget" weapon of almost unsurpassed quality. Once your tracking camera is on the right target, it's just a matter of waiting for the tracking box to change from a square to an oval (indicating lock-on), and then for the oval to change colour (indicating a high-accuracy firing solution). When firing at ground targets; its usually wise to wait for the oval to change colour before launching the missile. Once the missile is launched you can find other targets and manoeuvre as you please. The Maverick uses a highly-advanced guidance system. When you lock-on to a target, the missile takes a "snapshot" of the target's infrared image which it then stores in memory. When fired, the missile simply flies toward it "memorized" target. The missile is smart enough to hit the target in the centre. Firing Your Missiles You must always arm the appropriate missile before you can fire it. This is done by tapping the appropriate missile key (Medium-range, Short-range, or Ground Attack). Once a missile is armed, it will begin tracking the nearest target (the target appears in your tracking camera CRT). If you are attacking a ground target and want to track a different target, tap the Target Search Key (note that this key works only for ground targets). tapping it repeatedly cycles through all currently available ground targets. Stop when the target you want appears on the tracking camera CRT. If you have armed an air-to-air missile, you cannot switch from target to target because the IR-homer in the missile will track only the nearest target. If the tracking box appears in your HUD, the target is in front of your fighter and you can fire the missile once it locks on. If the tracking box does not appear, check the heading of the target in the tracking camera CRT and turn towards that heading until the box is in your HUD. Always remember to wait for lock-on before firing a missile. If you don't wait for the target box to become oval shaped, you're firing without lock-on and will almost certainly miss. Once you have a lock, look at your airspeed. If you're moving fast (around 500 knots or more) or the target is closing, a maximum range lock-on shot will probably hit. However, if your speed is low or if the target is flying away from you, wait until the range closes, ideally until the oval changes colour. Then simply hit the Fire Missile Key. Missile accuracy doesn't take into account enemy defensive equipment or evasive manoeuvring. First line and elite fighter aircraft may prove more difficult to hit. Although the "Mainstay" AEW&C craft manoeuvres poorly, it has superior defensive equipment that may make your missile go astray. You may find that guns are necessary against Mainstays flown by capable crew. remember that missiles fall 300' to 400' before their motor is powerful enough to guide them away to the target. if you're diving to a low altitude, the missile could slam into the ground before it can fly away. Firing in a tight turn, or while inverted, can cause the missile to tumble. The wisest method is only to fire when you're level and above 500'. Sidewinders and AMRAAMs always home on the most prominent target, which is usually the nearest. They will do so even if you were tracking someone else. You may be tracking a target, fire a missile, and then discover it goes for one of the fighter escorts that happens to be closer! Your M61A1 20mm Vulcan Jet aircraft travel so quickly that conventional machine guns and cannons cannot fire fast enough to guarantee a hit: a plane could literally fly between the shells. Therefore, modern aircraft cannons are either a group of guns (such as the twin 23mm cannons in many Russian MiGs) or a multi-barrel Gatling gun (such as the six barrel Vulcan on your Strike Eagle). Aircraft cannons have an effective range of 0.5 to 3 kilometres, with a maximum range of 6 kilometres. Inside 0.5 kilometres use of a cannon is unsafe, as there is a significant danger that a piece from a disintegrating target may hit you. The Historical Gunsight Your F-15 has the most modern, advanced gunsight available: a "historical" gunsight with automatic radar rangefinder. In normal operation this gunsight "assumes" you are firing at maximum range (6 km). However, if your tracking box is on a closer target, that shorter range is used instead for gunsight calculations. The gunsight computer constantly calculates range, flight path and ballistics for you. It then displays where you shells would be if they were hitting the target now. The gunsight continually calculates firing, delays the appropriate time, and displays potential hits as they would occur. Therefore, the sight is "assuming" that you fired at the correct time in the past (hence the term "historical" gunsight). The historical gunsight requires conscious "retraining" to use well since it doesn't require you to "place the sight on the target". However, this weakness is more then compensated for by the advantages of anticipation firing. The sight allows you to fire sooner and more accurately then any other sight in existence. The historical gunsight is the device of choice among "in-the-know" fighter jocks. Anticipation Firing It takes about two seconds for the Vulcan's shells to travel the maximum 6 kilometre range. Therefore, to hit a target you must judge the speed at which the target and your sight converge. You should fire about two seconds before they meet. If the range is less then 6 km, wait a little less. For example, at 3 km wait until the target and sight are one second apart; at 1.5 km wait until target and sight are a half second apart, etc. You can use this sight like an old fashioned predicting sight. That is, wait until the sight is on the target, then shoot. But at 6 km range you'll have to hope the target stays on the same course for two seconds to insure a hit. In short, the key to using a historical gunsight is anticipation. Don't wait for the sight to reach the target. Instead, learn to anticipate the meeting of sight and target, then shoot ahead of time. Strafing Ground Targets Using your Vulcan cannon against ground targets requires some skill. In a strafing attack, dive low (under 500') then straighten out and fly level. Because the cannon gunsight is optimized for air-to-air combat, "walking" your shells across the ground is the best way to hit a target, but this uses a lot of ammunition. Experienced pilots confine themselves to ranging bursts until they're close. The most difficult problem in strafing is your limited range. Maximum cannon range is only 6 kilometres; effective range is just 3 kilometres. This means you only have a couple of seconds to hit the target before it passes beneath your gun. A common error when strafing is "target fixation" where you ignore altitude. Remember that strafing means diving - and you've got to come up again sometime! After you pass your target, open the throttle and turn away. Keep an eye on your missile warnings and be ready to drop chaff or flares. ENEMY ARMAMENT The enemy will be firing sophisticated missiles at you in an attempt to destroy your aircraft. He will use basically two types of missiles: Surface- to-Air Missiles (SAMs), that are fired from ground installations, and Air-to- Air Missiles (AAMs), like your AMRAAMs, and Sidewinders, that are fired from his fighters. His aircraft are also equipped with rapid-firing cannons, like your Vulcan. In general, the enemy's cannons are not as effective as your own, but be careful of the lucky shot. Enemy Missiles Enemy SAMs As you fly into enemy radar search zones, which include just about all of the areas into which you will fly, the enemy will attempt to destroy your fighter from ground-based missile launch sites. In order to avoid being shot down by SAMs it is important to understand how they work. Radar Guided SAMs: Medium- and long-ranged SAMs are radar-guided. All types use the same three-step process to engage their target: (1) Radar search: Enemy search radar periodically scans a 360 degree area of the sky. (2) Radar tracking: When a search radar finds a target (such as your plane) it "hands off" to a narrow-beam fire control radar which locks onto your craft. At this point a missile is launched. (3) Radar control: Once the missile is launched, the narrow beam continues tracking your plane so the missile's course can be updated and corrected. IR-Homing SAMs: Short-range SAMs are usually infrared-homing missiles. The only significant difference between the method used for killing you with IR SAMs and that for Radar SAMs is that once fired , an IR SAM doesn't rely upon the radar to update its course during flight; instead, it guides itself to the target. (1) Radar search: A search radar finds your aircraft. (2) Radar tracking: A tracking radar follows your aircraft. (3) Missile launch: The IR homing missile is launched. At this point tracking radar is unnecessary, as the missile can guide itself to the target. Enemy AAMs The enemy has a wide variety of threatening AAMs, but probably the most dangerous one is the Russian AA-10 "Alamo". Like your AMRAAM, it is a "fire- and-forget" medium range missile, and is difficult to shake. All other Russian medium- and long-range AAMs are radar-guided, semi-active homers - they rely upon a radar beam emanating from the firing aircraft to guide the missile to your fighter. By definition, all IR-homing AAMs are "fire-and-forget" weapons. These are usually short-range (8-12 km), dogfighting missiles. The most dangerous is the Russian built AA-8 "Aphid", whose manoeuvrability and modern IR seeker is almost a match for your Sidewinder. If enemy MiGs or Sukhois close to AA-8 range, you could be in trouble; only your dogfighting skill could save you. Enemy Guns The enemy has cannons equivalent to yours in range and power. However, the enemy still uses old predicting gunsights. This means they are virtually required to get behind you before they can make a decent shot. In addition, all but the most elite pilots will be slow to fire, since they must place the gunsight on the target and keep it there to score a hit. If you sense the enemy is behind you and ready to fire cannons, "jinking" (small, violent moves in random directions) can throw his aim. Finally, Russian built aircraft with the older GSh-23 cannon may not always hit, since the lower volume of firepower increases the chance of you "flying between the shells" and escaping serious injury. Don't rely on this: not every 23mm shell is an unlucky one! DEALING WITH MISSILE ATTACKS Inevitably, you will find yourself under attack from both ground-based and air-launched missiles. Your fighter is designed to give you ample warning before you are hit and destroyed, and there are several defence systems built into the plane to aid you in spoiling the enemy's attempts to shoot you down. In addition, with practice you can manoeuvre your way out of desperate situations without having to rely upon your fighter's defence systems. Missile Attack Warnings Your first warning that a missile has been fired at you comes in the form of a beep and a message displayed in the message window. This will inform you of the type of missile fired and the place from which it was launched if it is a SAM or the type of enemy plane that fired it if it's an AAM. At this point one of the warning lights on the dashboard begins flashing to remind you that a missile has been targeted. If the offending weapon is radar-guided, the "R" light flashes; if it is an IR-homer, the "I" light flashes. Your next warning appears on your tactical screen, in the middle of the dashboard. You see the missile as it approaches your fighter. Finally, when the missile is within a few seconds of impact, you here the missile proximity klaxon, a high-pitched bleeping sound that continues until the danger is passed or until the weapon slams into your fighter. Responses to Missile Attacks Reduce Your Visibility In some cases, especially when a missile is fired at you from great distances, you can avoid the danger by simply "hiding" from the radar that must track you to guide the missile to your fighter. Unfortunately, IR-homers that are already enroute cannot be evaded in this way, but you may avoid additional launches of IR missiles, since the first step in launching is to find you with radar. First and foremost, the further you are from the enemy radar site, the weaker the signal. Therefore, you may wish to simply turn and run away for a while, until the signal is too weak to "see" you. Also remember that reducing your altitude, lowering your engine power, and levelling out your flight will help. Chaff (for Radar-Guided Missiles) For defence against radar-guided missiles, your fighter is equipped with chaff cartridges. Each chaff cartridge deploys a cloud of tiny tin-foil strips that reflect enemy radar. For two or more seconds the strips form a huge radar reflector, blinding the missile, like a smoke screen. The classic chaff technique is to wait until a radar-guided missile is just a couple of seconds away (when the missile proximity klaxon sounds). At that instant fire a chaff cartridge (tap the Chaff Key) and turn away. The blinded missile will fly straight into the chaff, missing you. Note that you do not have an endless supply of chaff cartridges; your current supply is constantly updated and indicated on the left hand side of the console, or on the HUD whenever you use one. Doppler Missiles: Enemy missiles with Doppler radar guidance systems are a special danger. These missiles will not home on the chaff unless your course is perpendicular (at right angles to) the missile. If the missile chases you from the rear or attacks from straight ahead, the chaff has no effect. Only three SAMs currently have Doppler guidance: the SA-10, SA-12 and SA-N- 6. Only one AAM (air-to-air missile) has Doppler guidance: the AA-10. Flares (for IR-Homing Missiles) For defence against IR-homing missiles, your fighter is equipped with heat- producing flares. Although called "flares", these are really small, finely tuned heat decoys. A flare lures an IR missile towards it (an away from you), but only during the 2 to 3 seconds it burns. After that the flare dies and the missile resumes seeking. Therefore, like chaff, the standard technique is to wait until the missile is a couple of seconds away (the klaxon sounds), then drop a flare while you turn away. Like chaff cartridges, you don't have an infinate number of flares; your supply is indicated on the left hand side of the console, or on the HUD whenever you use one. Manoeuvres It's important to remember that chaff and flares aren't perfect. Both radar- guided and IR-homing missiles continue seeking after your flare or chaff expires and Doppler radar missiles ignore chaff altogether if you're on the wrong course. Therefore, it's important to manoeuvre out of the missile's "field of view" when the defence expires. If you don't, the missile will re- acquire you and continue on a collision course! If you're an especially skilful pilot, you can outmanoeuvre an enemy missile without mechanical aids. Evading the Missile's View: SAMs have a limited cone of vision; they can only "home" on targets within the acquisition arc of their seeker. This arc is a bare 45 degrees ahead of the missile. If flares or chaff temporally confuse a missile, you can evade attack by turning rapidly to move outside this 45 degree arc. Usually the quickest escape course is one perpendicular to the missile's flight path. Turning inside a Missile: When a missile is close, you still have a chance to outmanoeuvre it, because its turning arc is larger then yours. If the missile is trying to fly up your tail, roll over onto a wingtip for a tight turn, then pull back hard on the control stick to tighten the turn further. Keep an eye on your airspeed, since you can't stay long in this kind of turn - soon the plane will stall. But meanwhile, the missile is making a wider, faster turn that causes it to zoom past harmlessly. Turning towards a Missile: If a SAM approaches you from the side, gradually turn towards it, increasing the tightness of your turn as it comes closer. The objective is to keep the missile's course at right angles (perpendicular) to your own. This tactic works because the missile cannot turn with you. Instead, it gradually falls behind and zooms past your tail. Evading Frontal Attacks: If a missile approaches you from the front, wait until it's about 8 to 12 kilometres away (about 2/3 of a grid square on the tactical display). Then make a quick 90 degree turn, placing the missile facing your side. Now roll over 180 degrees and turn towards the missile. Now you're set up for a turning battle (see Turning towards a Missile, above). Missile Minimum Range: Large less-manoeuvrable missiles fire straight up when first launched. This means that they can't begin homing until they're beyond a certain distance (in range and altitude) from their launchers. As a result, circling right over a battery of low-manoeuvrability SAMs can actually be very safe. DOGFIGHTING The best way to ambush an enemy plane is to slide up from behind it. Enemy aircraft have forward-facing radars only (except the IL-76 "Mainstay" AEW&C), so coming in from behind means you can catch him off guard. Traditionally, fighter pilots prefer to attack from above. This gives them an energy advantage in a dogfight. However, missile tactics and the importance of secrecy make a height advantage less valuable. Gaining height makes you visible to enemy radar, which may warn your targets. Therefore, approaching low and from behind is often wiser. Only if your missile attacks fail and the enemy discovers you should you begin to seek an altitude advantage. If you're surprised or "bounced" (attacked from above) be the enemy, immediately look for incoming missiles and take appropriate defensive action. Missiles arrive faster then aircraft, and must be avoided first. Only then can you begin dogfighting. The Missile Exchange Often an air-to-air battle starts because the enemy has discovered you and vectors fighters in your direction. The result, quite frequently, is a head- to-head face-on. In this western-style showdown each side starts with an exchange of medium- ranged AAMs. be prepared to chaff the "incoming" or manoeuvre it to a course perpendicular to your own. Once your medium-range radar missile is away, switch to a Sidewinder. You may get a second close-range missile shot if the AMRAAM fails. Scoring with a head-to-head cannon shot is much more difficult; it's not worth the ammo unless you're out of missiles or you're an incredibly good marksman. In most cases, if you can get off a second missile shot so can an enemy carrying second-generation IR missiles (the AA-8 or AA-10 IR version). These nasties show up frequently on MiG-29s and Su-27s, but aren't unknown on other craft flown by veteran or elite pilots. The Early Turn One of the most difficult but useful tactics in a head-to-head match is making an early turn. Against inexperienced pilots this trick is easy, since greenhorns usually keep boring in, hoping for a cannon shot. Against vets, an early turn requires fine timing. If you turn more then a second or two ahead of the enemy, you're just telegraphing your intentions. If you wait to long you get no advantage at all. Dogfighting Manoeuvres The essential rule in dogfighting is to get on the enemy's tail. On all fighters, gun and missile guidance systems face forward, so if you're on the enemy's tail he cannot shoot at you. If you can't get on his tail, try to place his aircraft as much ahead of you as possible, so you have the maximum number of firing opportunities. Maintaining higher speed or altitude is valuable in a dogfight. A plane slower and lower can only dodge attacks. A plane faster or higher can attack or retreat as desired. Having a higher speed or altitude is termed the "energy advantage". If the enemy is behind you, there are various classic escape manoeuvres: Turning Inside, the Scissors Turn, the Immelmann Turn, the Split-S Turn and the Yo-Yo Turn. Not only should you learn to execute them, but also learn to recognise them so you can apply the appropriate counter manoeuvre. Turning Inside You can see enemy planes approaching on your tactical display. The simplest solution to an enemy plane coming up from behind you is to turn towards him. If you're turning faster and tighter then he is, you'll gradually circle around and get onto his tail. You make the tightest turn possible by rolling onto your side and pulling back hard on the control stick - but be careful of stalling! Of course, if the enemy is turning faster then you, he will eventually come around behind you. If this happens try something else immediately. The longer you wait the worse it gets, until he lines up a shot and toasts you. Scissors Turn A more complex way to out-smart an enemy aircraft is the scissors turn. Begin turning toward him as if you're planning to out-turn him, but once he begins to turn with you, quickly roll over to turn in the other direction. This opens the scissors. As the enemy realizes you've turned away and tries to follow, reverse the procedure and roll back towards him again. If your turns were quicker and tighter then his, and/or you're a slower plane, he will eventually pass in front of you. This allows you to get onto his tail. A novice enemy pilot trying to turn with you can quickly be lured into a scissors trap. Even if his plane turns better, his slow reaction to each reversal will quickly give you the edge. A more experienced enemy pilot may avoid your trap by anticipating your next turn and blasting you (if his fighter is less manoeuvrable then yours), or by pulling up and over you into a yo-yo turn (if he's faster). Immelmann Turn This manoeuvre is an excellent way to reverse direction quickly, especially useful when an enemy plane has buzzed past in a head-on-encounter and you want to gain altitude and get on his tail at the same time. First you preform a half-loop upwards to reverse direction, then a half roll to right your aircarft. If an enemy fighter is behind you, an Immelmann can bring you nose- to-nose with him. Note that an Immelmann gives you an altitude gain but costs speed, since a half-loop upwards slows you down significantly. The original Immlemann, a German WWI fighter ace, reputedly rolled while vertical, allowing him to finish the loop in whatever direction he desired. He still finished the half-loop inverted - it's aerodynamically more efficient that way. Split-S Turn This is another way of reversing direction quickly, but is more dangerous. Begin by rolling inverted, then pull the stick back to half-loop downwards. Many pilots begin the loop before the roll is completed, rolling the plane while looping. The split-S causes you to lose considerable altitude, so it's often wise to reduce throttle and/or use speed brakes to minimise altitude loss. The Split-S complements the Immlemann because you gain speed and lose altitude. Unwary fighter pilots have sometimes tried to Split-S into or away from the enemy without remembering their altitude. The result can be a Split- S right into the ground! Yo-Yo Turn This manoeuvre is used mainly by higher speed jets against slower opponents. Therefore, you should learn this manoeuvre well, because your fighter is one of the fastest, most powerful in the world. You may see Su-27s and MiG-29s attempting it against you! This turn requires excellent cockpit visibility, something that earlier MiGs lack. To execute a Yo-Yo turn, climb and roll towards the enemy, until he's visible out the top of your canopy. Then pull over into a dive while still turning. During the dive you roll the plane to help line up your shot. Very often you'll take that shot while inverted. In effect you make a very big turn in three dimensions, Most of the turn radius is "consumed" with the climbing and diving, allowing a faster plane to travel further and turn wider, yet still come out on the tail of the more manoeuvrable plane. As you gain altitude you gain the "energy advantage" and the flexibility to turn either way your opponent goes. American F-4 Phantom pilots used this manoeuvre with great success against slower but more manoeuvrable MiG-21s over North Vietnam during the Vietnam war. Note that the best defence against a Yo-Yo is to reverse your turn, or to use the third dimension yourself (usually by going into a Split-S). Because a Yo-Yo requires good spatial perception, first practice it using the Slot View (if alone) or Tactical View (if you've got a target). CHAPTER 5. THEATRES =================== LIBYA Introduction Libya is ruled by Col. Mu'ammar al-Qadhaffi, leader of the secret army organisation that deposed the former king in 1969. The capital city is Tripoli and the nation's chief source of wealth is oil. A desert nation, Libya has only on visually distinctive mountain region: the Jabal al Akbar to the east of Benghazi. Deep in the desert, east of Sabha, are the desolate, isolated mountains of the Al Haruj al Aswad, while to the west are the great sand seas (ergs). Rich by third world standards, Libya buys most of its armament from the Soviet Union. Its military is trained by Soviet advisors, but national pride has prohibited (so far) any significant Soviet presence. Soviet advisors do not participate in combat operations. Libya's army is approximately 60,000 men strong, its navy has 53 ships and 6,500 men, while its air force has roughly 530 planes, 30 combat helicopters, and 8,500 men. A 10,000-man paramilitary "Pan-African Legion" also exists as well as various terrorist training camps. Sightseeing in Libya Flying over Libya is a unique experience. It is a truly desert nation, a land of red and brown hardscrabble with patches of tan sand and grey boulder fields. Water is all underground, seeping to the surface in occasional patches of green oasis or mountain valley. Mountain ranges are low, undulating areas full of small hillocks and short peaks. From the air it's often hard to tell the difference between ageing roadways and dark wadis (gullies) in the desert. But some works of man stand out, particularly the rust red of oil wells and pipelines or the distinctive star-pattern of SAM batteries. Friendly Bases Sigonella on Sicily (UD15): The USA maintains the Sigonella military field in southeastern Sicily. The Sigonella runway is the main staging point for air attacks against the North African coast, especially Libya. Unfortunately, the flight distances are quite long. CV American at Sea (UD70): This 60,000-ton "Kitty Hawk" class conventional aircraft carrier, designated CV66, serves with the US 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean. It participated in the 1986 raids against Tripoli and Benghazi. The carrier is ideally positioned for launching and recovering strikes against Benghazi, the Gulf of Sirte, or targets deep inside Libya. Here it cruises on a southerly course with its traditional ring of close escorts. The carrier remains well north of the Gulf of Sirte to avoid SSM attacks from enemy ships and aircraft. It is surrounded by escorts and regularly replenishes the CAP (combat air patrol) with F-18 launches. Neutral Bases These airbases are in neutral territory. Don't use them unless specifically ordered to do so or if you must make an emergency landing. Suda Bay on Crete (VD41): Near the city of Khania, this airfield is not an American base, although in years past it was a major NATO air and naval base. It has the advantage of being both closer and less public then equivalent fields in Greece or Egypt. Halfar on Malta (UD13): Once a critical strength position for the British Commonwealth in the Mediterranean, this is now a neutral port and sometime tourist haven. Libyan Cities and Targets Tripoli (TC87): The capital city of Libya has a large military-civilian airbase at Idris, well protected by SAM batteries. Until recently, long-range SA-5 Gammons watched the skies from these sites, but there are indications that Russian military advisors may replace these with more formidable SA-12 Gladiators. Tripoli is also the site of a major army headquarters, various military depots, oil storage areas, and sometimes terrorist training camps. Missile boats can almost always be found prowling the coast nearby. Sabha (UB17): This southern town is the main military base of operations for Libya's southerly expansion. It was the major depot for the war against Chad and is still extremely important to Libyan trans-Saharan ambitions. The most important military installations here are the large airbase and the SAM battery protecting it. Misratch (UC26) & Sirte (UC43): These costal towns house low-level military headquarters and oil storage tanks for refuelling ships. Sirte is a secondary naval base, supporting missile boats that cruise the western side of the :Line of Death". Ras Lanuf (UC82) & Port Brega (UC92): Ras Lanuf is Libya's largest and newest oil facility. A vast quantity of oil for export is stored here, and a large number of oil tankers ply the waters nearby. There is also a refinery, vast "farms" of oil tanks, and a major military headquarters. Port Brega oil facility is older but still in operation despite the completion of Ras Lanuf. A number of SAM batteries are sited in this vital area. Port Brega airfield, west of town, serves both ports. Benghazi (VC16): This city is the site of Libya's second-largest military base, including the Benina airfield and powerful protective SAM batteries. The city itself is large, with a military headquarters and a few small oil storage facilities to serve the ancient port. Terrorist training camps are not uncommon in the hills to the east. Al Bayda (VC37): This sleepy coastal town in the mountains Jabal al Akbar has major military significance. It overlooks the narrow Ionian sea between Libya and Greece, making it an ideal site for anti-ship missiles. There is a small airstrip and SAM site as well. Oil Fields: The great oil fields of Libya are in the southeast, where literally thousands of wells pump crude from the ground. This oil os piped to Ras Lanuf and Port Brega. The great producing fields can be found near Raguba (UC90), Waha (VB18), Amal (VC30), Jalo Oasis (VC40) and Gialo (VB49). Most fields have a few storage tanks on site to hold crude temporarily until it can be piped to the port. However, the majority of storage tanks are at the ports, not on the fields. Secret Bases: Western intelligence operatives in Libya are preparing two secret, hard-pack surfaces suitable for aircraft landings. One is at Al Mukhayli (ONC VC43), the other is on the edge of the great ergs, at Yafran (ONC TC93). Libyan Air Defences Libyan air defence forces use Russian-built equipment and are trained by Russian advisors. SA-2 Guideline and SA-5 Gammon SAMs have been the backbone of Libyan air defences, but there are rumours of upgrades to new SA-10 Grumble and SA-12 Gladiator systems. Local military forces make use of SA-7 and SA-14 shoulder-fired missiles. These are also popular terrorist weapons and can be expected in the vicinity of terrorist camps. Libyan army units use various medium-range SAMs, including SA-8s, -9s, -11s and -13s. Libyan Air Force Fighters: The Libyan Air Force is composed of over 140 MiG-23MF "Flogger" fighters, a number of MiG-25 "Foxbats" (for reconnaissance and long-range interceptions), and several antiquated MiG-21s. The Air Force also has various Mirage 5D fighter-bombers for ground attack missions. Intelligence expects that MiG-23s and 25s will be your primary air-to-air opponents, although you may encounter the new MiG-29 "Fulcrum" flown by Soviet personnel. Reconnaissance Bombers: Although Libya does not possess any Tu-95 "Bear" reconnaissance bombers, Russian Bears frequently operate from Libyan bases. Air Transports: It is suspected that Libya's antiquated fleet of C-130H and C-47 air transports (built in America) will be replaced with Russian equipment, perhaps including the new An-72 "Coaler" jet transport. Libyan Navy The Libyan Navy is composed primarily of missile corvettes and missile patrol boats. The largest of these is the 770-ton Russian-built Nanuchka II class armed with Styx surface-to-surface missiles, SA-N-4 SAMs, and a twin 57mm gun turret. Other boats include the Russian Osa-class, Italian-built Wadi M'ragh class and the French-built La Combattante II types; these have poorer missiles and SA-N-5 SAMs, or no SAM at all. The Nanuchkas are the best boats in the Libyan Navy. They preform the most aggressive patrols, making them the primary threat. Patrols occur frequently in the Gulf of Sirte, south of the "Line of Death". Sometimes the Libyan air force flies fighter missions in support of these naval patrols. THE PERSIAN GULF Introduction Iran has been ruled by Shi'ite radicals since the overthrow of the pro- American Shah in 1979. In September, 1980, Iraq attacked Iran, beginning a long, costly war between those nations that lasted for years. Both contestants are viewed with distrust by the Arab states south of the Persian Gulf and Iran's support of international terrorism has not improved the nation's image. Iran also calls for a Shi'ite religious revolution throughout the Islamic world. This naturally bothers the leadership of the Arab states, since their governments are Sunni. However, Iran is populated by Persians, not Arabs. So far this cultural and linguistic barrier has hindered the spread of Iranian Shi'ite radicalism across the Persian Gulf to the Arab states. Iran is a large nation with varied geography. The Elbroz and Zagros mountain ranges run from the northwest corner (where Iran touches Turkey and the Soviet trans-Caucasus) diagonally southeast, along the border with Iraq, and then parallel with the Persian Gulf. South of these mountains, at the head of the Gulf, are Iran's oil fields. North of the mountains the nation is divided into two regions. The western part, near Iraq, Turkey and trans-Caucasus Russia, is fertile, heavily populated and includes most of the major cities and industrial plants. The eastern part, bordering Pakistan, Afghanistan and Soviet Central Asia, is largely barren desert and mountains with a small, impoverished, under-educated population. Under the Shah, Iran's oil-rich finances permitted massive investment in military forces, mostly from the USA. Since the revolution, however, many complex weapons have failed for lack of spare parts and maintenance, while most of the rest were damaged or destroyed in the war with Iraq. Iran has some sophisticated aircraft and missiles remaining, but these are deployed to protect key cities in the interior, rather then as a border defence. Sightseeing in The Persian Gulf Like Libya, the Persian Gulf is a desert region, except for the large, high spine of mountains that runs diagonally through Iran from the northwest to the southeast. However, water is more plentiful especially in Iran, resulting in increased agriculture and large local irrigation works to control the seasonal run-off from the mountain highlands. The Gulf has many interesting and exceptional areas, such as the Tigris- Euphrates watershed that reaches the head of the gulf around Abadan. Once a great seaport and teeming metropolis, the destruction of the Iran-Iraq war has reduced the area to a ruin of small towns and villages. Kharg Island, despite wartime attacks, is one of the great man-made wonders of the world. Surrounded by oil platforms and supertankers, guarded by missile boats and fighter patrols, it remains the site of numerous refineries and oil storage tanks. There are also great oilfields south of Kuwait City, north of Bushehr in the Bandar-e-Rig, on Bahrain and Qatar, and along the UAE coastline near Ruweiss and Tarif, as well as assorted individual platforms along the Arabian coast. Another interesting region of Iran is the great valley of Bandar-e-Lengeh and Bandar' Abbas. Seasonal rivers flowing from the mountains have formed a fertile valley floor that empties into the Straits of Hormuz, the strategic doorway to the Persian Gulf. On the opposite side (the southern side) of the straits, creating a narrow choke-point of naval traffic. Friendly Bases America's strongest allies in the Persian Gulf are Saudi Arabia and the tiny island kingdom of Bahrain. CV Nimitz at Sea (KY83): This huge 80,000-ton nuclear carrier is the class ship of the latest and most powerful program of aircraft carriers. Normally assigned to the Pacific Fleet, it is prepared to visit the Indian Ocean at any time. Here it sails with a close escort of destroyers, and has its F-18s on regular rotation in CAP (combat air patrol). American aircraft carriers do not sail into the restricted waters of the Persian Gulf, where they would be "sitting ducks" for land-based air and missile attacks. Carrier task forces remain in the Indian Ocean, although the Nimitz and her ring of close escorts have sailed deep into the Gulf of Oman to provide a base as close as possible to the Persian Gulf targets. If threatened, the ship can always sail to the southeast and escape into the vast expanses of the Indian Ocean. Ras as Saffaniyah (JY19): This is Saudi Arabia's northernmost oil terminal and port along the Gulf. Its airfield is in a useful strategic location. Dhahram (JY54) & Al Hufuf (JY44): Dhahram is Saudi Arabia's largest port city on the Persian Gulf. However, the Al Hufuf airfield slightly inland is a strategically useful and less public position for basing missions and raids. Bahrain (JY65): This small island nation is strongly pro-American, providing large naval and air base facilities for American military forces. Neutral Bases Kuwait is a friendly neutral nation. Oman is neutral but pro-Western, and the UAE (United Arab Emirates) are studiously neutral. Kuwait City in Kuwait (JZ12): Originally neutral, Kuwait sought US aid and support after repeated Iranian threats and attacks. The Kuwait airport can be used occasionally to stage missions that demonstrate America's support of Kuwait, or for emergency landings. However, Kuwait is fearful of provoking more Iranian hostility and therefore will not grant America basing rights. Qatar (JY75): This small independent nation works hard at the appearance of neutrality, probably because it has both strong pro-American and strong pro- Iranian factions. Although missions cannot be staged from here, it is possible to use the pro-American groups to aid in emergency landing situations. Ruweiss (KY01) & Tarif (KY11): These small oil ports of the UAE are not especially friendly to the American cause. Because the UAE is a decentralized government, pressure and money in the right places could permit an emergency landing. Some of the largest oil fields of the UAE are in this area (ONC KY22-23). Abu Dhabi (KY31): Abu Dhabi is the major city of the UAE, where the appearance of neutrality is most important. Emergency landings at this base are very difficult, but not impossible if Iranian diplomacy succeeds in making yet more enemies. Al Khafi at Dubai (KY65): This large airfield outside the city of Dubai is the most strategically useful of all the UAE airfields. It is the base closest to south-central Iran and is an important launching or retrieval point for deep missions. However, as at Abu Dhabi, political problems make the use of this base difficult to impossible. Muscat in Oman (KY90): Oman is careful to remain neutral in all affairs, but is strongly pro-Western. For example, much of its army is trained and officered by "retired" British military personnel. The military portion of the Muscat airfield is available for missions and emergency landings, provided everything remains secret and politically "deniable". Iranian Cities and Targets Dezful (JZ38), Masjed Soleyman (JZ47) & Ahvaz (JZ37): These cities are the main "rear areas" behind the former Iran-Iraq battlefront. They have a variety of SAMs. Although all originally had airbase facilities, it is believed that only Masjed Soleyman's remains intact. Abadan (JZ24): This city is located at the final junction of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, near the Persian Gulf. Numerous battles in and around this area have destroyed the once beautiful surrounding countryside with poisonous gas. Bandar Khomenyi (JZ44): This is the main Iranian military base behind the southern part of the Iran-Iraq front and a major staging base for military supplies and munitions of all sorts. It has a large airbase, powerful SAM batteries, and a major military headquarters. Bandar-e-Rig Oil Fields: These oil fields, clustered along the coast and inland hills (JZ61 and JZ71) are a key source of Iran's oil wealth. Kharg Island (JZ60): This island is covered with refineries, oil storage tanks and port facilities for oil tankers. Until the Iran-Iraq war it was the greatest oil terminal in the world. Repeated attacks have ruined many of the facilities, but never all of them. Now protected by SAM batteries, and missile boat patrols, it is still Iran's main port for oil export. Much of Iran's oil wealth is offshore. One of the heaviest concentrations of oil platforms is in the vicinity of Kharg Island. Beware that some platforms are now used by Iranian Shi'ite "Guards" as military bases. Bushehr (JZ80): This important coastal city was once a major oil port, but is now completely overshadowed by neighbouring Kharg Island. The military forces on its SAM batteries and airbase are not always first rate. However, it is home port for many Iranian frigates and missile boats that patrol the gulf. Shiraz (KZ03): This inland city, sited on a highland plateau, is one of the largest Iranian cities. It is also the nerve centre and main headquarters for Iran's southern military command - the forces responsible for the Persian Gulf. There is an exceptionally large military airbase here that is usually protected by powerful SAM batteries. Esfahan (JZ89): Nestled in a large gap of the Zagros Mountains, this inland city is the classic "gateway" to northwestern Iran. As a transportation and population centre it naturally boasts an airfield and SAM sites. Yazd (KZ38) & Kerman (KZ84): These two cities are distant population centres on the edge of the Iranian deserts. Both cities are dominated by strong traditionalist sentiment, which in recent years has translated into fervent Shi'ite extremism. However, the huge war has caused many families to reconsider their support for Jihad. Bandar-e Lengeh (KY57): This western city on the Straits of Hormuz has a minor military base, including an airfield and SAM battery. However, its primary function is civilian, serving the large oil fields in this area. Offshore oil platforms are especially common in KY35-45. Seasonal rivers running from the mountains to the west down into Bandar-e Lengeh have a variety of interesting road and rail bridges over them. Bandar 'Abbas (KY68): This city is Iran's major military base on the Straits of Hormuz. Major Iranian Navy elements are based here, as well as the latest SAMs and a large, well-equipped military airbase. Secret Bases: Western intelligence operatives in Iran are preparing two secret, hard-pack surfaces suitable for aircraft landings. One is in the Shalamzar valley (JZ67) in the Zagros Mountains, the other in the mountains south of Kerman, at KZ82. Iranian Air Defences Hawk batteries are Iran's longest-ranged surface-to-air missiles. Nearly exhausted in fighting with Iraq, these weapons are formidable defenders of Iran once more. Sold by Britain to Iraq, Rapier batteries are fast, but shorter-ranged, and hindered by a fire control system that is primarily visual, with the radar intended originally as backup. The Rapier radar system never approached the quality or sophistication of the Hawk. In fact, in the Falkland Islands fighting, the Rapier was surprisingly ineffective. The Tigercat, an antiquated British design, appears in less important areas. Many Tigercat sites have little or no radar, since the missile is designed for visual control. The Seacat is a naval version of the Tigercat, found on Iranian Vosper Mk 5 type frigates. It is somewhat more dangerous because the frigates have decent radar search systems. Iranian Air Force This service is composed primarily of American-built aircraft acquired during the Shah's rule. Before the outbreak or war the Air Force had a nominal strength of 75 F-14 Tomcats, about 200 F-4D and F-4E Phantom IIs, 140 F-5E Tiger IIs, plus various other planes and helicopters, including C-130 Hercules transports and P-3F Orion reconnaissance bombers. Fighters: Iran lacks the sophisticated technicians and parts to keep its F- 14s operational. Within a year after the revolution fewer then five were functional. No missiles or parts exist for the long-range Phoenix AAM system, but some F-14s can carry AIM-7F Sparrows or AIM-9H Sidewinders. The older but less effective F-4s and F-5s are easier to maintain. These planes are the backbone of the Iranian fighting air force, intercepting raids, guarding rear areas and ships from attack, and occasionally attempting a raid of their own. Iranian fighters are equipped with AIM-9H Sidewinders, one of the last and best first-generation IR AAMs. The F-4 Phantoms (but not the F-5 Tigers) are designed to carry the AIM-7F Sparrow, a medium range radar-guided missile. Reconnaissance Bombers: Iran has few naval reconnaissance bombers, and most of those are P-3O Orions with inoperative electronic gear. Such planes are reduced to visual patrols only - a waste os aviation fuel in a modern warfare environment! However, it's possible that long-range Russian Tu-95 "Bear" bombers may make an appearance, flying from Afghanistan or Yemen. Airborne Early Warning & Control: Iran has no "AWACS" or other AEW&C aircraft. Instead, the few operational F-14s are used in this role, since the F-14 has an extremely powerful air search radar. Air Transports: Iran has a variety of small, medium and large air transports, including the American C-130 Hercules, German Fokker F27, French Dassault-Breguet Falcon 20 and Boeing 707 and 747 transports models. The exact types available vary greatly, depending on the supply of spare parts and the presence of knowledgeable mechanics. Given Iran's dislike of the West, some consider it likely that she will shop in Russia for the next transports bought, perhaps the new and very flexible An-72 Coaler. Iranian Navy The Iranian Navy suffered greatly in the Iran-Iraq war. Many ships were damaged in the fighting and remain unrepaired; the others have deteriorated badly for lack of maintenance. The great naval base at Khorramshahr, near Abadan, was destroyed early in the war and remains a ruin. It is believed that one or more of the four Vosper Mark 5 frigates are still functional. These 1,100-ton ships include Seacat SAMs, and a 4.5" gun turret. Occasionally patrols by these or smaller ships can be expected in the region of Kharg Island or in the Straits of Hormuz. If functional, the Vosper frigates pose a significant military threat. Iran's Shi'ite "Guards" also man a large number of fast motorboats. The crew carry rocket-propelled grenades to attack shipping, and shoulder-launched IR SAMs to protect themselves from air and helicopter attack. Virtually invisible, these "mosquitos" are a threat only to unarmed merchant shipping, or an aircraft unlucky enough to pass over the area. These boats are based all along the Iranian coast, especially at Bandar 'Abbas, and from a variety of offshore oil platforms. VIETNAM Introduction Vietnam war missions take us back to when Southeast Asia consisted of five countries: North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and Laos. North Vietnam is attempting to conquer South Vietnam and reunite the two countries under Communist control. The North Vietnamese have established hegemony over Laos and Cambodia, and only South Vietnam and Thailand remain friendly to the US. The principal geographic feature of the area is the Mekong River that flows from China to the sea. The area is heavily vegetated with lowland swamps, jungles and wooded mountains. Outside the major cities, civilisation is marked mainly by rice paddies and villages of grass huts. North Vietnam is a poor nation, but is supplied with weapons by the Soviet Union. Their army is large relative to the national population and highly motivated. Despite heavy losses and generally inferior equipment, they have thrown the French out of the region and are fighting the South Vietnamese and their US allies to a standstill. Their air force is equipped with older MiG- 17s, some reportedly flown by pilots of sympathetic countries. Their northern cities and the supply routes south are heavily protected by anti-aircraft missile batteries. Their navy consists of only a few missile boats patrolling the coast. The most important targets for US air attacks are the two major bridges on the supply routes heading south: the Paul Doumer Bridge near Hanoi and the Thanh Hoa Bridge. The majority of the supplies supporting the war in the south must pass over these two bottlenecks. Sightseeing in Southeast Asia This region is mostly green and overgrown and often very little can be distinguished from the air except rivers, rice paddies and grass huts. Mountain ranges are low and wooded. The most impressive man-made features are the large bridges in North Vietnam. Also noticeable are smaller bridges and the distinctive pattern of SAM batteries. The war is being fought in South Vietnam, and hotspots can be found in several areas of the country. Look for burning objects on the ground and flights of Huey helicopters. Friendly Bases Tan Sonh Nhut (XU53): Located outside of Saigon, this is the largest and busiest airport and base in Southeast Asia. Military aircraft based here are used primarily to support nearby ground troops. Da Nang (YU37): The northernmost airbase in South Vietnam. Aircraft from here support local ground troops, interdict supplies on the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and strike targets over the border to the north. Nha Trang (YU12): Located to the east of the central highlands. Aircraft from this base support ground troops and interdict supplies coming south on the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Udorn (XV95): Just over the border in Thailand from the Laotian capital of Vientiane. Aircraft based here reach out to bomb targets in North Vietnam and Laos. Don Muang (XV90): Located in the southeast corner of Thailand, this is an important base for making attacks on the Ho Chi Manh Trail and enemy troop concentrations in the central highlands of South Vietnam. Korat (XV43): Located southeast of Bangkok in central Thailand. Aircraft from here conduct bombing attacks on targets in North Vietnam. Takhli (XV45): This base northeast of Bangkok in Thailand is part of the air defence of the capital and was not an important base for war missions. Bangkok (XV14): The capital of Thailand. The airbase here is too far from the war zones and North Vietnam to be particularly useful. CVs Constellation (YU77) & Kitty Hawk (YV81) at Sea: These 80,000-ton carriers have a complement of approximately 85 aircraft, and are placed in the Gulf of Tonkin to strike targets deep in North Vietnam. Prohibited from striking civilian targets, the navy concentrates on the transportation routes bringing supplies south, especially the vital Paul Doumer and Thanh Hoa Bridges. Each carrier group consists of one carrier and a ring of escort destroyers. A combat air patrol of fighter planes is continuously overhead to intercept any approaching North Vietnamese aircraft. North Vietnamese Cities and Targets Hanoi (YV68): Surrounded by numerous airbases and SAM batteries, the capital city of North Vietnam is one of the most heavily defended air targets in the world. The SAMs deployed in this area are either SA-2 Guideline or SA-5 Gammon missiles. Nearby airbases are located at Gia Lam, Phuc Yen and Kep. To the southwest of Hanoi is the Paul Doumer Bridge, one of the highest priority targets in North Vietnam. The bridge is also defended by SAM batteries. Haiphong (YV86): This city is the most important North Vietnamese port, and is guarded by SAM missiles and a fighter airbase nearby at Cat Bi. Located near Haiphong are numerous storage dumps and tankfarms. Thanh Hoa Bridge (YV55): Southwest from Hanoi along the coast is this second important bridge, also heavily defended by SAM batteries. Vinh (YV44): This coastal town supports an interceptor airbase that helps defend the major bridges to the northwest, the approaches to North Vietnam from Thailand, and the supply routes to the south. Dong Hoi (YV30): This town supports the southernmost North Vietnamese airbase. Although often attacked by friendly forces, it remains operational and its fighters intercept attackers heading north or bombing the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Cambodian and Laotian Cities and Targets Phnom Penh (XU36): The capital city of Cambodia has fallen under the control of North Vietnamese-sponsored Communist forces. Enemy planes are operating from the airbase outside the city. SAM batteries have been placed in the area. Vientiane (XV97): The country of Laos is controlled by the Pathet Lao, a Communist group supported by North Vietnam. Enemy aircraft are now based at Wattay, near the Laotian capital of Vientiane. Ho Chi Minh Trail: This supply route from the north is a maze of roads and trails that winds through the mountains and jungles of both Vietnams, Cambodia and Laos. Targets along this trail are generally not fixed, but some bunker and depot locations are known. North Vietnamese Air Defences The North Vietnamese use Russian-built equipment and are trained by Russian advisors. The majority of the SAMs deployed are SA-2 Guideline or SA-5 Gammon missiles. North Vietnamese Air Force The majority of the fighter aircraft in the North Vietnamese Air Force are MiG-17s, a highly manoeuvrable plane, but lacking in firepower and electronics. The air force also possesses a few more modern MiG-21 and MiG-23 aircraft, possibly flown by foreign nationals. Intelligence reports that MiG-17s will be your primary opponents, although you encounter MiG-21s and MiG-23s as well. North Vietnamese Navy The North Vietnamese Navy consists of only a few torpedo boats transferred to it from the navies of Communist China and the Soviet Union. From the Soviets came 190-ton S.O.-1 class boats and from the Chinese came Shanghai-II class boats. Both boat types are armed with light anti-aircraft cannon, but no SAMs, and thus offer only a small threat to aircraft. THE MIDDLE EAST Introduction The Middle East has been the scene of constant tension and recurring warfare since the United Nations formed the country of Israel in 1948. In the crucible of this conflict, the Israelis have forged a superior army and air force that have consistently out-matched their opponents. The threat to Israel today comes from Syria and Iraq, although Iraq has been significantly worn down by eight years of warfare with Iran. The Jordanians have adopted a policy of near neutrality and are not expected to take an active part in any near future conflict. Lebanon has been torn apart by civil war and invasions by Israel, Syria and Palestinian refugees. The Syrians and Iraqis are supported financially by the Saudi Arabians, but receive most of their weapons and training from the Soviet Union. Jordan and Saudi Arabia act independently and have relatively strong ties to the West. Sightseeing in the Middle East The Middle East is primarily a desert world, with agriculture existing only along the coasts and rivers. A low chain of mountains extends northward along the coast through Israel and Lebanon, up into Turkey. Between the Mediterranean Coast and the mountains of Turkey and Iran, the desert is broken by the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Visible from the air are many works of man, including the ruins of ancient buildings and nuclear power plants in Iraq rumoured to be assembling nuclear weapons. Friendly Bases Akrotiri on Cyprus (ER13): Aircraft from this British airbase are capable of reaching targets along the Mediterranean Coast. American or Israeli aircraft would not normally base here, but could use the facilities in an emergency. CVN Eisenhower at Sea (ER46): This 80,000-ton "Nimitz" class nuclear carrier often serves with the US 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean. Here it cruises off the coast of Lebanon, positioned to strike anywhere along the Mediterranean Coast. Carrying a compliment of approximately 85 aircraft, the Eisenhower is constantly guarded by a combat air patrol of fighter planes. Ramat David (ER73), Tel Nof (ER82), Lod (ER81) & Hatzerim (ER91): These Israeli airbases are home for the fighters and fighter-bombers of the air force many consider to be the best in the world. Backed up against the sea by enemies or non-friendly neutrals, the Israelis must be prepared to launch air defence or attack missions in any of three directions. Malatya in Turkey (ES25): Turkey is a NATO ally and no friend of Iraq or Syria. This airbase is home for aircraft assigned to defend Turkey's southeast border, and from here planes can reach the capitals and other targets in both Iraq and Syria. Tabuk in Saudi Arabia (FS81): This airbase serves as a defensive post along the Saudi Arabian northern border. In any armed conflict in the region, US aircraft would be allowed to land here only in an emergency, unless circumstances called for Saudi Arabian support of US interests. Jordanian Cities Amman (ER94): Amman is the capital of Jordan and home for the major elements of the Royal Jordanian Air Force. The most numerous planes available are Mirage F-1s and Northrop F-5s. Ground air defence is provided by Hawk missiles. Ma'An (FR57): Outside this city is the Prince Hassan airbase, where half of the Air Force's combat planes are deployed. Planes were placed here to reach the Sinai Peninsula, but now that the Israelis have made peace with Egypt, air elements here may be moved farther north to cover the West Bank areas. Iraqi Cities and Targets Baghdad (FS57): The capital city or Iraq is located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although low in strength due to war losses, major elements of the Iraqi air force are based here. Outside the city is a nuclear power plant that many believe is producing materials for nuclear weapons. Mosul (ES88): The second largest city in Iraq also has heavy air defences. Another nuclear facility is thought to be operating nearby. Kirkuk (FS29), Habbabiyah (FS54) & H3 (FS20): At these locations the Iraqis have airbases ringing their country. Kirkuk faces Iran and H3 is an outpost at a pumping station in the desert along a major pipeline to Syria. Syrian Cities and Targets Damascus (ER85): This ancient city, the capital of Syria, is situated east of a gap in the coastal mountain ranges and was founded on the east-west trade route. Damascus is the major military base in Syria and home to a majority of the Syrian Arab Air Force. Dayr As Zawr (ES92), Hims (ER59) & Palmyre (ES70): These towns support airbases that guard Syria's northern and western borders. Dayr As Zawr is located at an ancient crossing point on the Euphrates River. Palmyre is a desert oasis town near the centre of Syria. Hims is northeast of Lebanon, helping to surround that country. Halab (ES40): Previously known as Aleppo, this city is located in the northern hills of Syria near the Turkish border. Aircraft based here cover the Turkish border and can reach south to Israel or into the Mediterranean. Al Ladhiqyah (ER48): This town north of Lebanon on the Mediterranean Coast is near the Turkish border and supports the airbase closest to Cyprus. It is not a shipping port but is a vacation spot and fishing centre. Syrian Air Defences The Syrians use Russian-built equipment and are trained by Russian advisors. They possess over 75 batteries of surface-to-air missiles, mostly SA-2 Guideline and SA-3 Goa weapons. Local military forces are equipped with SA-7 and SA-14 shoulder-fired missiles, and these can also be expected in the vicinity of terrorist camps in Lebanon and Syria. Syrian Air Forces The Syrian Arab Air Force is composed of over 450 combat aircraft and 50,000 men. The majority of the interceptor aircraft available are MiG-21s and MiG- 23s, with one squadron of MiG-25s. The MiG-25 squadron is reported serviced and manned by east Germans and Russians. Iraqi Air Defences Iraq has not invested large resources in air defence, and has only 10,000 men assigned to this branch. Largely separated from enemies to the west and north, it has concentrated most of its defence against Iran. SAM batteries deployed are either SA-2 Guidelines or SA-5 Gammons. Iraqi Air Force The Iraq air force has substantially modern equipment, but did not demonstrate a high degree of training or skill during the war against Iran. The main air defence aircraft are MiG-21s and Mirage F1s. THE NORTH CAPE Introduction Politics: The North Cape area is shared by four nations. West to east, they are Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Soviet Union. Their political orientations parallel in their geographical locations: Norway belongs to NATO, Sweden is a pro-Western neutral, neutral Finland accommodates the Soviets, and the Soviet Union, of course, leads the Eastern Bloc. Military Forces: In terms of global politics, the North Cape is the single most important military region in the Soviet Union. Murmansk is Russia's only year-round open-sea access to the Atlantic Ocean. Russian SSBNs (ballistic missile nuclear submarines), the heart of nuclear deterrence, sail from here into the Atlantic lifelines. Norway fields a large, tough force tailored for a dogged defence of its mountainous homeland. Reasonably well-equipped, the majority of the forces guard the populous southern regions. The northern bases have only token garrisons. Northern Norway seems more important to NATO then it does to the Norwegians, since important NATO air, naval and marine troop assets are planned to reinforce this area in time of war. Sweden's armed forces are designed to make the Russians (or anyone) think twice about violating that country's neutrality. The forces are well equipped and well trained, with a nationwide reserve system that makes a large part of the citizenry part-time soldiers. However, the northern part of Sweden is almost unpopulated, so the defences there are considerably lighter. Recently Sweden has been greatly irritated by Russian midget submarines literally crawling around inside her fleet bases, and by a Russian diesel sub that ran aground in a harbour entrance while carrying a nuclear-tipped torpedo (a serious insult to anti-nuclear Sweden). Finland fields a much smaller and less sophisticated force then its neighbours. Although fiercely independent, Finland has learned to accommodate the desires of its powerful neighbour, the Soviet Union. The Soviets maintain this "friendly" attitude by garrisoning powerful military forces near the Finnish border, and strongly encouraging Finland to buy Soviet military equipment. Geography: This entire region is a harshly cold climate. Northern Norway is a long, mountainous country with a harsh climate and "iron" (rocky) sea coast. In this terrain a small group of determined defenders could stop an army for years. The "open" areas of Finland and Sweden are deceptive. On the map it may appear to be an open plain, perfect for attack. In reality it's a frigid wilderness in the winter and a vast, marshy bog in the summer. Friendly Bases The two Norwegian land bases here are civilian airfields, but both are closer to the Russian border then the NATO bases at Banak and Bardu. It is easy and wise to stage missions through either Lakselv or Kautokeino, rather then flying longer distances from more rearward fields. Such staging could be just a quick landing and refuelling both inbound and outbound. In effect, the fields can function as grounded refuelling tankers. Kautokeino (WX11): Located in the barren tundra of the Finnmarksvidda, Kautokeino airfield is well suited for operations across the top of Finland to Murmansk. The population is very small and the entire area well defended by tundra swamps and bogs in the summer, or sub-zero blizzards in the winter. Lakselv (WX34): Located at the inland end of the Porsangen Fjord, Lakselv town has an airfield suited to operations into Russia. It is far enough from the border to survive the first few days of fighting, but close enough for easy flying. CV Kennedy at Sea (WX67): In the middle 1980s the Secretary of the Navy announced a new policy - a wartime policy of sending aircraft carriers deep into the Norwegian Sea, to challenge Russia's fleet near its home ports. Although considered suicidal by some, this policy is certainly useful for launching missions. Here CV67, one of the conventional carriers with the US Atlantic Fleet, makes a quick dash to the North Cape to launch your mission. As always, the carrier is accompanied by a screen of escorts, and is constantly launching and recovering a CAP of F-18s. Neutral Bases Available neutral bases in this region are all Swedish. Sweden is strictly neutral in international politics, but economically closely tied to the Western Bloc. Given recent events an aggressive Russia moves, its not unlikely that a few missions, or emergency landing, would be allowed at northern Swedish airbases. Kiruna (WW28): The northern most airfield in Sweden, this base is located in the nearly unpopulated foothills of the Estrange Mountains. Missions could operate easily from this area, with nobody but reindeer to observe the events. Gallivare (WW26): Although this airfield is also far north in Sweden, Gallivare town is a junction or rails and roads. In the summer moths it is also a popular tourist area, with the Muddas National Park a few miles to the west. Missions operating from this base must be very discrete. Lulea (WW13): This fairly populous city is the main Swedish military base in the Northern Region. It is also a port on the Gulf of Bothnia, the northern most arm of the Baltic Sea. The Land of the Midnight Sun The North Cape (Nardkapp in Norwegian) is a realm of extremes. In the summer the sun shines throughout the night, while in winter in never rises above the horizon. The most northerly areas are realms of tundra and permafrost - ground that remains frozen throughout the year, save for the top few inches in the summer. Only moss and course grass grows here, although it can turn brilliant green on good summer days. The majority of the region is taiga, vast pine forests that are home to reindeer, arctic fox, and rock ptarmigan. The southerly lowlands are a deep watershed, full of small lakes, marshes and bogs. The White Sea coast line is almost entirely marsh as the land blends gradually into the sea. The interior of the Kola Peninsula has the characteristic mountains of a tundra-taiga borderland: low, rolling, rocky and bare, with pockets of snow even in summer. The Norwegian coast has more dramatic terrain. Here is the topmost end of the spine of mountains that divides Norway from Sweden. Even here they are still steep, bare, rocky with clinging patches of ice and snow. Amid this monotonous, desolate terrain are impressive human works, especially the city of Murmansk with its sprawling military complexes. Hideously expensive to build and maintain through the long, deep winter, this region is surely the most valuable military real estate in the world, judging by money invested per acre! Northwestern Russia Murmansk (XX11): This major city is Russia's only year-round port on the Atlantic Ocean. Its great piers and depots support not only a steady stream of merchant shipping, but the powerful Red Banner Northern Fleet. Murmansk is literally "at the end of the line", in this case a long railway line that runs southward 700 miles to Leningrad. Murmansk is also the nerve centre of Russia's powerful air forces, including both PVO air defence planes and Naval Aviation of the Northern Fleet. Satellite airfields surround the city, including large bases at Kildenstroy (XX10) and Kilpyaur (XX00). The Northern Fleet includes, roughly, one aircraft carrier, 75 other major surface warships, one marine brigade, 133 submarines and 446 naval aircraft. The protection of its bases is the duty of 12 Divisions of army troops (about 300,000 men total) and 150 planes of Tactical Aviation (air force planes supporting the army) and the PVO (air force interceptors guarding the border). The great Severomorsk (XX31) submarine pens are also just outside of Murmansk. This underground base is the home port for the few Typhoon class of ballistic missile subs, as well as many other diesel and nuclear undersea craft. Pechenga (WX91): This town is Russia's forwardmost military base in the far north. Just a few miles from the Norwegian border, Pechenga is the inevitable staging point for any invasion into NATO territory. Although it has an airbase and strong SAM defences, the Polyarnyy airbase complex to the east (in WX80) is somewhat larger. Monchegorsk (XW18) & Olenegorsk (XW19): These two towns, near the base of the Kola peninsula, are major airbases for long-range naval aviation bombers, as well as providing fighter and SAM cover to the railroad link between Murmansk and the south. Kandalaksha (XW16): This small city is the main population centre at the base of the Kola peninsula. It is primarily a transportation hub, with rail lines and a naval port that faces eastwards, into the White Sea. South of the city lies the Loukhi (XW04) air defence complex, including a large SAM battery that covers this section of the Murmansk-Leningrad rail line. Kem (XW21): South of Kandalaksha, Kem is the next significant city along the Murmansk-Leningrad line. It too is a small port facing onto the White Sea. It is also the starting point for the Voknavolok rail line that runs westwards to the Finnish border. This is a purely military line, intending to support the Russian military presence on the Finnish border. Arkhantgel'sk (XW71): This city is Russia's largest port on the Atlantic. Although closed by ice during the winter, it has much better rail and road connections to the interior of Russia, and is almost totally invulnerable to enemy attack. In addition to large port facilities, the city is surrounded by military defences, the most notable being the complexes at Severodvinsk (XW51) and Kushkushara (XW84). In addition, units of the Northern Fleet patrol offshore in the White Sea. Secret Bases: Western intelligence operatives in this area have secretly created two hard-frozen airstrips suitable for landing, one at XW57, the other at XX20. Air Defences The Kola Peninsula is vital to the Soviet Union because of the access it affords to NATO's lines of communication, but its very proximity also makes it particularly vulnerable to NATO counterstrokes. Consequently, the Kola Peninsula is likely to prove one of the most challenging anti-aircraft environments in the world today. Long-range SAMs: These are area defence weapons that, along with fighters, are your primary opposition. The older SA-2s and SA-5s have been undergoing continual upgrade to SA-10 and SA-12 quality. The entire system is enhanced by the LPAR early warning radar system at Kirovsk. Light SAMs: Soviet ground forces in this area are outfitted with the usual battlefield SAMs, including the older SA-9 and SA-13IR missiles, as well as the newer SA-8 and SA-11 radar guided missiles. Mobile infantry carrying SA-7 and SA-14 shoulder-launched IR SAMs are a significant threat as well. The PVO and Naval Aviation Fighters: This region is defended partly by the PVO units, with long-range MiG-25 and MiG-31 interceptors using long-range radar-homing AAMs. Naval aviation fighters operating from either carriers or land strips include the Yak-38V/STOL jet and the new Su-27 multi-purpose fighter. During wartime shorter-ranged units may arrive, including MiG-29 and Su-27 dogfighters with short-ranged IR missiles as well as long-range radar weapons. All these planes but the Yak-38 are worthy opponents. The Yak can only carry IR homing missiles (generally AA-8 Aphids). It is considerably slower and less flexible than the other fighters. Reconnaissance Bombers: Many long-range Tu-95D "Bears" are based in this area, to keep tabs on NATO naval activity in the North Atlantic. A nuisance in peacetime, these planes pose a serious threat in a war. Eliminating them is always a high priority in NATO war plans. That would blind the Russian high command to activities in the Atlantic and Norwegian seas. Transports: Russia possesses numerous air transports for its huge force of airborne units. The most modern of these is the jet propelled An-72 "Coaler", which is particularly suited to fast, high priority missions like inserting commando teams or transporting critical command personnel. AEW&C Aircraft: The Soviets routinely deploy Il-76 "Mainstay" aircraft in this region. The 300+ mile radars on this plane may be your most formidable enemy. If you're spotted and can't discover how or by whom, chances are it's a Mainstay. The Red Banner Northern Russia's Northern Fleet offers both tempting targets and a significant threat. Its modern Sovremennyy-class destroyers carry SA-N-7 missiles, while the numerous Krivak class frigates sport the SA-N-4. The larger Kiev-class carrier has the powerful SA-N-6, a sea-going equivalent to the SA-10. These warships are more then capable of defending themselves. Stationed off the northern coast, they significantly extend the Soviet anti-aircraft umbrella. In addition to these ships' SAMs, the Kiev carries a complement of Yak-38 "jump-jet" fighter aircraft. While less capable then ground-based fighters, the British Harriers in the Falklands taught the world not to under estimate the capabilities of such planes. An up-coming addition to the Northern Fleet is a class of huge aircraft carriers fitting out in the Crimea. Tentatively titled the "Kremlin" class, these ships are expected to join the Northern Fleet soon. CENTRAL EUROPE Introduction Politics: Central Europe is where the full force of East and West meet. Since World War II Europe has been two hostile blocs, with a few neutrals balanced between. On one side are the communist East European nations, created in the wake of Soviet armies at the end of WWII. On the other side are democratic Western European nations, created by the USA and Britain in the wake of their armies during WWII. Since 1949 the West has been linked by NATO. In 1955 the East formalised an equivalent organisation, the Warsaw Pact, dominated by the USSR. From then to now the two greatest military organisations on earth have uneasily eyed each other along the German border. Military Forces: The Warsaw Pact can deploy almost 3 million men, about 80,000 armoured fighting vehicles, and 6,000 combat aircraft. Against this juggernaut the Western powers can field around 2 million men, 40,000 AFVs, and 4,000 combat aircraft. The numerical imbalance is partially offset by the higher quality of the western troops and equipment, presumably along with the traditional advantages of being the defender. Together, the two sides have almost 10,000 nuclear weapons for battlefield use in Europe. These range from small, sub-kiloton shells designed to wipe out troop concentrations, up to multi-megaton city-busters. Artillery, planes, and missiles of all types and ranges can deliver these weapons. At one time NATO felt it had to use nuclear weapons to compensate for numerical inferiority. Today it has an alternative plan: "air land battle, 2000". In this NATO uses superior technology, including its stealth planes, too attack deep in the rear of the Warsaw Pact armies destroying their logistical support. If this innovative strategy works NATO need not use nuclear weapons to stem the Red tide. However, if this fails, NATO must choose between a nuclear holocaust and the conquest of Europe by the Soviet Union. Geography: The "Central Front" stretches 1000 km through the middle of Germany, bordered on the north by the Baltic Sea, and on the south by the Alps. The initial strategic objective of a Russian invasion would most certainly be the Rhine river, only 150 km from the frontier (at the closest point). West German terrain is mildly favourable to the defender especially in the forested and hilly southern half. The broad, flat North German Plane is the traditionally invasion route but every few kilometres there is a new town, village or city. Each could become a new defensive bastion. One often neglected geographic consideration is the terrain to the east of the frontier, with the development of the "Air-land battle" this region takes on a new significance. The North German Plane broadens towards the east, encompassing most of East Germany and Poland. It is crossed by a number of major rivers flowing northward, channelling road and rail traffic into a variety of bridges. This combination of open countryside and numerous "choke points" is well suited to air operations. Friendly Bases West Germany, Holland and Denmark are studded with airfields that could serve as bases for stealth raids into Eastern Europe. They form a gentle, north-south crescent bulging west in the middle. Which is the most suitable starting point for a particular airstrike depends mainly on the location of the target. Deep penetration raids will usually start from Denmark or Southern Germany. Shorter tactical strikes, however, must fly directly into the mouth of the tiger. Jutland Peninsula - Vandel (CC52) & Leck (CB59): These far northern bases make ideal jump-off points for raids out across the Baltic. Often it's easier to deal with missile boats in the Baltic than the heavier SAM defences in East Germany and Poland. Northern Germany (Hanover) - Ahlhorn (CB37) & Gutersloh (CB53): These bases, directly behind BAOR (British Army Of the Rhine), face across the flat, densely populated North German Plain, the most likely axis of advance should the Warsaw Pact attack NATO. Therefore, they represent the most direct route to one of the greatest concentrations of hostiles in the world. Central Germany (Westphalia) - Rhein-Main (CB52) & Ramstein (CB50): These bases are the great, famous bases of American air power in Europe. Rhein-Main is one of the largest military bases in the world, while Ramstein is the headquarters for the 4th Tactical Air Force. Southern Germany (Bavaria) - Neuberg (CA68), Leipheim (CA57) & Memmingen (CA65): These bases are all Luftwaffe (air force of the Federal Republic of Germany), but like many German bases, are entirely willing to host American aircraft as needed. Any of these bases makes an excellent jump-off point for missions into Czechoslovakia. Sightseeing from the Baltic to Bohemia Without doubt, the most impressive sights in this region are the vast urban metroplexes, from the northern ports of Hamburg (CB67) and Lubeck (CB77) to the old cities of Leipzig (CB82) or Warsaw (DB95), or the industrial sprawl of Prague (DB30) and Krakow (DB90). Those northern areas not covered with cities, towns or villages are divided into small plots of farmland. Much of the area is watered by extensive river systems flowing northward. Bridges large and small are common near cities. An especially impressive suspension bridge can be found on the southwestern outskirts of Hamburg (CB67). The southern part of this region is dominated by low mountains that virtually surround Czechoslovakian lowlands of Bohemia (to the west) and Moravia (to the east). The valleys and passes amid the mountains provide numerous natural routes, and not a few flying challenges. Although much of the highland areas were once forested, in the last few decades acid rain has denuded many areas and started rampant erosion. The once green mountains are now brown, grey and black. The much higher Alps capped by perpetual snow are generally obscured by haze to the southwest. The Eastern Bloc East Germany: During a limited or conventional war the main strength of the Warsaw Pact forces will travel through here, surging into West Germany. The greatest natural barrier in East Germany is the Elbe river, running from the Czechoslovakian mountains northward to Hamburg. Destroying these river bridges would cut off the Pacts forward troops from their supply lines. Poland: In a NATO-Pact conflict Poland is the "rear area" through which Russian troops and supplies would flow toward the front lines. Many important headquarters and depots are situated in the central and western part of the nation. The Wista-Vistula river system divides Poland in half, from north to south. Destroying the road and rail bridges can seriously damage Pact operations. Polish defence complexes include a powerful system west of Gdansk at Stupsk (DB48), and south of Lodz at Radom (DB83). In addition, Warsaw (DB95) is a major transportation hub, so active SAM batteries can be expected in that area during wartime. Czechoslovakia: This Pact nation, separated from Germany by the mountains and the rugged highlands of the Bohemian Forest, is likely to play a secondary role in wartime. Czechoslovakian defences are somewhat lighter then those of East Germany and Poland. Tabor (DA38) is the most significant installation. Far to the east, guarding the entrance to Hungary and southern Poland, is another defence complex at Konmarno (DA87). Kaliningrad: This region of Russia named after the major seaport of Kaliningrad (renamed from Konigsberg in 1945), is the Soviet "front line" on the Baltic. It includes a major OTH (over-the-horizon) radar station (at EB09), as well as the Klaipeda airbase (EC02). Air Defences Equipment: Since the "Central Front" forms the focal point of the war, the anti-aircraft defences on both sides are the most intensive in the world. The Soviets are certain to deploy large quantities of their most modern weapons, SA-10s and SA-12s, for area defence. In some areas the older, less effective Sa-5 long-range systems may still be in place. Radar guided SA-8s and SA-11s are most commonly used for more local defences, especially near important military concentrations or objectives. A few are even sited near the larger SAM batteries to provide local defence. The shorter-ranged infrared SA-9s and especially SA-13s may appear instead if the radar-guided weapons are not available. At sea the Baltic missile boats typically have either SA-N-5 or SA-N-7 systems, although Krivaks and larger ships with the SA-N-4 can be expected in wartime. Defended areas: The whole region is alive with lethal metal. The most dangerous areas will undoubtedly be on or near the front lines in West Germany, and perhaps at any invasion sites in Denmark. Also beware of reserve troop concentrations in East Germany or Poland. But these are relative assessments, not absolute. Let down your guard anywhere and your aircraft will undoubtedly follow. Air Forces The Soviet Air Force is the largest in the world and one of the most modern. It deploys a wide variety of interceptor, bomber and support aircraft. Some are obsolescent, but many can meet the best of the West. The Soviets know the value of air superiority. They'll give high priority to that goal in any European war. Fighters: As always the primary foe is another pilot. With 6,000 combat aircraft to choose from you can bet that the Red Air Force will find a few to spare for you. They'll also have the hot new models. If you're lucky, you'll only see second-line MiG-23s, but more likely you'll encounter quality dogfighters like the MiG-29 and the Su-27. In the rear areas you're more likely to see long-range interceptors like the MiG-25 and the MiG-31. Bombers: The Russians have many different bomber aircraft. One of the most troublesome is the Tu-95 "Bear" modified to carry cruise missiles. Keeping a number of these craft in orbit behind Russian lines gives them an "untouchable" airborne nuclear force. Airborne Early Warning and Control: The Soviet Il-76 "Mainstay" AEW&C was designed for work on this kind of environment. Flying "racetrack" orbits deep behind friendly lines, its powerful radars can see NATO air operations develop and radio appropriate orders to various fighter squadrons. The effort to develop these planes has been long and costly; the size, weight and expense of the electronic gear is gigantic. Each plane is precious. Eliminating them would cripple Soviet air operations. The Pact appreciates this too, so getting them won't be an easy job. Transports: Thousands of air transports will shuttle back and forth on both sides of the front line, carrying troops, raiding parties, munitions, staff officers, etc. The new Russian workhorse that flies anywhere and carries almost anything is the An-72 "Coaler". Its high speed and short-field capability make it the natural choice for secret missions, and a natural target for you. Naval Forces The Russian Baltic fleet, headquartered at Baltiysk outside of Kaliningrad, controls 4 cruisers. 16 destroyers (many of them obsolescent), 7 Krivak-class large frigates, 22 missile boats and other light warships, and 21 amphibious assault ships, as well as 45 submarines (mostly older diesel-electric models). It also controls the East German and Polish Navy's, which have numerous additional frigates and missile boats. This force has two goals: too cover the northern flank of the Warsaw Pact from air attack, and too invade Denmark in the event of war. CHAPTER 6. WARPLANES ==================== US-BUILT AIRCRAFT F-4E Phantom II Serving the US Navy and Air Force as fighter and strike fighter throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, this old reliable is now obsolete and serves mainly for reconnaissance and electronic warfare ("Wild Weasel"). However, hundreds were sold to western nations worldwide, including Iran under the Shah. You can expect to encounter these flying patrols over the Persian Gulf. F-5E Tiger II This inexpensive and unsophisticated fighter was never adopted by US combat arms, but has been widely sold abroad, including 138 to Iran. Underpowered, with poor avionics, it is useful only against obsolete opponents. It carries only short-range air-to-air weapons. F-14D Tomcat This heavy, long-range interceptor has extremely powerful avionics for use with the AIM-54 Phoenix semi-active radar-homing missile, which has a 200 km effective range. The aircraft is the Navy's long-range defender of carrier battle groups. The swinging wings are computer-controlled for maximum performance but they signal the plane's energy state to the enemy. In 1987 the Navy began a programme that upgraded the original TF30 engines with the newer, more powerful F110s. About 80 F110-engined F14s were supplied to Iran, but engine troubles, complexities in the avionics system, and the delicacy of the Phoenix missile have greatly reduced their military value. They are often used as radar-warning patrol aircraft. Mirage 3NG This large, powerful ground support/air superiority aircraft is based upon the famous French Mirage 111 series. This NG (new generation) version is the most advanced Mirage fighter to date. The prototype first flew in 1982 and was still in development in 1985. F-16C Falcon The latest production fighter added to the US Air Force, the F-16 is the most manoeuvrable dogfighter in the world (with the possible exception of the MiG-29). The inherently unstable airframe that gives this agility would be un-flyable except for the computerized electronic controls, hence the nickname "Electric Jet". Advanced air-ground avionics and anti-missile defences are "extras", making the basic aircraft relatively cheap. Many western nations have purchased F- 16s. However, until the AIM-120 AMRAAM it had no long-range AAM. F/A-18A Hornet Although not as manoeuvrable as the F-16, this heavier multi-role fighter has numerous avionic and defensive aids built in. These were required by the US Navy, its main user, who needed an all-purpose fighter and attack bomber able to fire a variety of sophisticated weapons. Like the F-16, it also is sold to various western nations. A-6E Intruder Designed at the end of the 1950s a a low-level attack bomber for use in poor weather, this plane remains an unqualified success. Avionics and weapons have been rebuilt more then once to maintain the "state of the art", with upgrades under development. AV-8B Harrier 11 Originally designed as a strike fighter, the American-British co-redesign greatly enhanced manoeuvrability. Its avionics are designed for ground attack rather then air-to-air combat. Despite this, Harriers were successful as interceptors and combat air patrol in the 1982 Falklands war. The Harrier is the primary fighter of the US Marines, the British Royal Navy, and frontline squadrons of the British Royal Air Force (RAF) in Germany. Usually it uses short segments of roadway or a ski-jump deck for rolling takeoffs, and lands vertically, like a helicopter. A-10A Thunderbolt 11 This slow, heavily-armed plane was designed purely for frontline ground support with "tank busting" as its speciality. This role (un-glamerous to the USAF), along with its peculiar appearance, earns it the unofficial nickname "Warthog". Although intended for combat in Europe where low clouds and bad weather are frequent, the A-10 is a fair-weather day-only plane, but the manufacturer hopes to interest the USAF in a night-flying variant. Unless protected by good fighters (F-15s and F-16s), this plane is doomed if sent into airspace contested by USSR fighters. Ef-111A Raven This is a specially-built electronic version of the F-111 strike and interdiction bomber. The original concept of the F-111 was a high-speed bomber for deep strikes at night or in bad weather. The EF-111 is popularly known as the "Electronic Fox" or "Spark Vark" (the unofficial nickname of the E-111 is "Aardvark" or "Vark"). It is designed to accompany deep strike and interdiction missions, providing electronic screening and jamming. It is the fastest, most powerful such craft in the world. SOVIET-BUILT AIRCRAFT MiG-21 Fishbed This agile, manoeuvrable, easy-flying fighter was the premier dogfighting plane of the 1960s and early 1970s. It has simple avionics and a standard armament of 2 or 4 AA-2s (now often replaced by AA-8s), making it inexpensive to buy, arm and maintain. However, it has little or no HUD, weak radars and low-quality defences, making it obsolete as a fighter. Unfortunately, its limited carrying capability makes it poor as a strike fighter. MiG-23 Flogger This swing-wing fighter replacement for the MiG-21 originally had few avionics and a 22,485lb. R-27 engine. This caused serious performance flaws, and the version sold abroad was unable to fire sophisticated weapons. The upgraded version, listed above, is still a mediocre performer. All versions commonly carry AA-2 and/or AA-8 missiles. Most USSR and East European versions also use the AA-7 radar homing missile. With its MiG-27 brother, this plane has huge production runs, making it the cheapest fighter available today. This alone makes it one of the worlds most popular aircraft. MiG-27 Flogger This is the ground-attack variant of the MiG-23. In Russian frontline units it includes a laser designated for laser-guided munitions and simple terrain- avoidance radars for low-level attacks. Improved jammers and decoys are added as well. However, many sophisticated attack aids common on western strike fighters are not present. Presumably the MiG-27s compensate for this with quantity, as huge production runs greatly lower its cost. MiG-25 Foxbat This plane was originally designed to defend the distant borders of the USSR from air attack, working with special ground radars to attack enemy bombers with a special long-ranged AAM (the AA-6). It is extremely fast, but quite unmanoeuvrable. A few are bought by client states for status reasons, but the reconnaissance version (MiG-25R) is more popular. It has an 88,000' ceiling, making it immune to normal SAM or fighter interception. MiG-29 Fulcrum Originally designed to outfit the F-15, this plane is a modern, lightweight dogfighter with superlative agility. It has engine power in excess of its weight. Common armament is AA-10 "fire and forget" radar-homers along with some AA-8 and/or AA-10 IR missiles. The degree of sophistication in the avionics is unknown, but unlikely to match western models. This MiG is considered the Russian equivalent of the F-16. MiG-31 Foxhound This aircraft is a redesigned MiG-25. Although slightly slower, it is improved in all other categories, especially low-altitude interceptions against planes and cruise missiles. The new AA-9 long-range missile is designed for look-down attacks on low-level cruise missiles. It also has AA- 8s and AA-10s. Su-24 Fencer This is the most advanced air-ground attack plane built by the USSR. Externally it appears similar to the F-111, including the side-by-side seating in the cockpit. However, its armament and avionics are designed for front-line and rear-area strikes into the teeth of enemy air defences. Western air and ground commanders fear the Su-24 more than any other Soviet aircraft. The aircraft may carry a few AA-8s for self defence, but it is not designed for air-to-air combat. Su-27 Flanker This aircraft was designed to defeat the F-14 and F-15 fighters. It is a large powerful dogfighter whose usual armament is probably four AA-8 and four AA-10 missiles. In comparison to the MiG-29, the Su-27 is a larger, heavier plane. If its avionics and flight controls are truly modern, the Su-27 may be a superior plane. However, in dogfighting manoeuvrability the MiG-29 and F-16 probably have the edge. Yak-38 Forger Originally known as the Yak-36MP, this vertical take-off fighter operates from the Kiev-class aircraft carriers, which lack the equipment and deck space for conventional jets. Initially thought to be a Russian equivalent of the Harrier, the Yak-38 is considerably inferior. It has limited interception capability and very limited strike capacity. Until this plane, however, the Russian navy had nothing bigger than helicopters for its warships at sea. Tu-26 Backfire Many of these swing-wing bombers are in service with the Soviet naval-air arm, carrying long-range missiles to attack hostile warships up to 3,000km out to sea. The Backfire's exceptionally long range and high speed, plus its powerful missiles make it a mortal threat to USN aircraft carriers. With aerial refueling it has sufficient range to get within cruise-missile-launch position of the USA. As a gesture to arms control, the USSR has removed air refuelling equipment from its air force Backfire's. An-72 Coaler This is the latest general-purpose air transport of the Soviet Union. Its jet engines and short-takeoff performance make it an outstanding utility craft for transporting all types or personnel and cargo between remote airfields. MiG-17 Fresco The MiG-17 represents the Soviet Union's first missile armed fighter/interceptor. First seen in 1955 it was a major re-design of the MiG- 15. While considered obsolete in 1965, it saw extensive action in the skies over Vietnam, where its performance against the more modern US fighters was admirable. TECHNICAL SUPPLEMENT ==================== Key Controls Flight Controls Increase Throttle + Decrease Throttle - Maximum Power Shift/+ No Power Shift/- After Burner A Eject ESC Landing Gear up/down L Brakes on.off B Pilot, Automatic P Weapons and Defences Short-range Missile S Medium-range Missile M Ground Attack Missile G Flare Release F Chaff Release C Avionics Waypoint Select W Radar Range R Zoom Map Z Expand Map X Views Return to Cockpit SPACE Look Front F1 Look Left F2 Look Right F3 Look Rear F4 Slot View F5 Chase Plane F6 Side View F7 Missile View F8 Tactical View F9 Reverse Tactical View F10 Director Mode D Simulation Controls Accelerated Time on/off Alt/A Detail Adjust Alt/D Control Sensitivity Alt/K Pause Alt/P Quit Alt/Q Re-supply Alt/R Training Alt/T Volume Adjust Alt/V Change Control Method Alt/J Slew Keys Move North Alt/S Move West Alt/Z Move South Alt/X Move East Alt/C Notes on Simulation Controls Change Missions to Training (Alt/T): Tapping this key converts your current mission into a training mission. This means that henceforth enemy weapons do not damage. Tapping Alt/T again exits training. Once a mission is converted to training you cannot score any points for it, even if you toggle training off again. However, the slew controls and re-supply key only function while in training. Change Control Method (Alt/J): Tapping this key cycles through the four available control methods. Control Sensitivity (Alt/K): Tapping this key cycles through the three available sensitivity levels. Detail Adjust (Alt/D): The level of detail affects the game's speed. Slew (Alt/S,Z,X,C): These keys function only in training. tapping a key "teleports" your aircraft in that direction. The distance you're "teleported" varies with the current Zoom/UnZoom scale of the satellite map (left-side cockpit CRT). Slew is an excellent way to check out the region while training. Display Colours HUD Targeting Colours Black rectangle Out of that weapon White rectangle Weapon out of range White oval Weapon locked on target Red oval Weapon locked at ideal range Red-boxed dot Enemy missile Green-boxed dot Friendly missile Landing Gear Light Blue Landing gear up Red Landing gear down Missile Warning Lights Red Flashing Radar/IR missile incoming Blue No threat Satellite Map (Left CRT) White dot Your aircraft Orange dot Mission objective on ground Black dot Ground radar Dotted line Pulse radar Solid line Doppler radar Tactical Display (Centre CRT) Brown lines 16km grid Brown radar dish Ground radar Blue boat Warship radar Grey rectangle Airfield Red crossed circle Other ground targets Grey airplane Your F-15 Large orange asterix Main target White dots Chaff Red burst Flare Blue plane Plane at higher altitude Red plane Plane at similar altitude Brown plane Plane at lower altitude Yellow line Radar-guided missile Brown line Doppler Radar missile Red line IR-Homing missile Grey-boxed object Current target Typed by Flux/Crystal. Finished 01:20:29 on 1 July 1991. Typed with Protext v5.06.